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THE 



BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, 



STRUCTURE AND DISEASES 



OF 



fuai scamp 



Bin 



WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS, 



f 






AND 



AN APPENDIX, 



r^/~~ • 

BY HENRY J( CANFIELD. 



SALEM, COLUMBIANA COUNTY, OHI 
PRINTED BY AARON HINCHMAN 

1848. 




11 



PREFACE 



This Treatise has been compiled and composed princi- 
pally with a view to the diseases and management of sheep. 
In this work, quotations have been made from the works 
of Messrs. Youatt, Spooner, Blackiock, McKenzie, Liv- 
ingston, and various other authors. In many cases they hava 
been quoted directly ; in other cases, for the sake of brev- 
ity, no marks of quotation are used. On many subjects, 
it is impracticable to write much which is entirely new ; 
therefore, a careful compilation of those materials which 
are most useful, together with the elucidation of many 
other things which have not heretofore been explained, I 
trust, will be satisfactory to the reader, and will need n© 
apology. 

Canfield, Mahoning County, Ohio, 
October, A. D., 1848. 



Entered according to Act ot Congress, in the jear 1848, by th* 
author, in the Clerk's office of the District Co«rt of the United States for 
the District of Ohio. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

I. Origin of the Sheep, 9 
Asiatic Argali, 9 
American Argali, 10 
Musmon or Mouflon, H 
The Domestic Sheep, 12 

II. Ancient Management of Sheep, 14 
HI. Asiatic and African Sheep. 

The Fat-Ramped Sheep, 18 

The Broad-Tailed Sheep, 20 

Sheep of Persia and Hindostan, 23 
Sheep of Thibet, China, Egypt and 

Ethiopia,. 24 
Sheep of Abyssinia, Madagascar, 

Cape of Good Hope and Angola, 25 
Sheep of Guinea, and Northern Africa 

or Barbary, 26 
IV. European Sheep. 

Iceland Sheep, 27 

Russian do. 28 
Sheep of EuroDean Turkey and 

Greece, 29 
Sheep of Switzerland, Holland and 

Belgium, 30 

Cretan or Wallachian Sheep, 30 
Austrian, Hungarian and Swedish 

Sheep, 

Sheep of Denmark and Prussia, 32 

do. Silesia, 33 

do. Saxony, 34 

do. France, 40 

V. Italian and Spanish Sheep. 

Italian Sheep, 43 

Spanish do. 44 

Different Breeds of Merinos, 69 
VI Irish Sheep. 

The Wicklow Breed, 63 



31 



IV COKTENTS. 

Sec. VI. The Kerry Breed, 64 

" VII. The Short-Tailed Sheep, 65 
" VIII. British Sheep. 

Welsh Sheep, ' 66 
" IX. The Forest Breeds. 

The Dartmoor Breed, 67 

The Exmoor, 68 
" X. Mountain Breeds. 

The Black Faced Heath Breed, 68 

The Cheviot Breed, 70 
" XL Upland Breeds. 

The South Down, 73 

The Dorset, 77 

The Ryeland, 80 
" XII. Long-Wooled Breeds. 

The Lincoln, 81 

" Romney Marsh, 83 

" Teeswater and Bampton Nott, 84 

" Cotswold, 85 

" Old and New Leicester, 87 

Merino Sheep in England, 93 

Names applied to Sheep in England, 94 

Concise Description of British Sheep, 

by Messrs. Lawrence and Cully, 95 

" XIII. North American Sheep, 96 

The Otter Breed, 97 

The Arlington long-wooled Sheep, 97 

The Smith's Island do. 98 

Jamaica Sheep, 99 

Introduction of Merinos into the 

United States, 99 
South American Sheep, 103 
The Alpaca, 103 
Various Breeds, and their Manage- 
ment, 105 
Australian Sheep, 107 
" XIV. General View of the Structure of 

Sheep, 111 

« XV. The Skeleton of the Sheep, 1 1 5 

The bones of the Head, 117 

The importance of the size of the 

Head, 118 



CONTENTS. 



Sec. 


XV. 


The bones of the Body, 


118 






The bones of the Fore Extremites, 


120 






The Hind Extremities, 


121 






Biflex Canal, 


122 






Horns and Hoofs, 


123 


Sec. 


XVI. 


The Muscles or Flesh, 


124 


tt 


XVII. 


The Brain and Nerves, 


126 


<» 


XVIII. 


Organs of Mastication, 


128 


(< 


XIX. 


Organs of Digestion, 


131 


a 


XX. 


The Urinary and Generative Organs 


,144 


t( 


XXI. 


The Contents of the Chest, 


147 


it 


XXII. 


The Blood and its Circulation, 


151 


a 


XXIII. 


Respiration and its Effects, 


160 






The Production of Animal Heat, 


164 


it 


XXIV. 


Structure of the Skin, 


165 






Covering of the Primitive Sheep, 


167 


u 


XXV. 


Wool and its Properties, 


167 


a 


XXVI. 


Yolk, 


183 


it 


XXVII. 


Influence of Soil, Food and Climate 








upon the Fleece, 


185 


a 


XXVIII. 


Breeding. 


190 






Breeding of Mutton Sheep, 


191 






" " Fine-wooled Sheep, 


197 


tt 


XXIX. 


Breeding in and in, 


203 


it 


XXX. 


Crossing, 


207 


it 


XXXI. 


Selection of Breeds, 


213 


it 


XXXII. 


Shelters, 


217 


a 


XXXIII. 


Quantity and Qualities of Food, 


221 


it 


XXXIV. 


Water, 


233 


it 


XXXV. 


Fall Management of Sheep, 


235 


a 


XXXVI. 


Winter Management, 


239 


tt 


XXXVII. 


Spring Management, 


244 


it 


XXXVIII. 


Summer Management, 


251 


a 


XXXIX. 


Fattening. 


261 


a 


XL. 


Condiments, 


266 


a 


XLI. 


The Diseases of Sheep. 








Introductory Remarks, 


277 






Signs of Health, 


278 


it 


XLII. 


Diseases of the Brain and Ner- 
vous System, 








Apoplexy, 


278 






Inflammation of the Brain, 


279 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Sec. XLII. 



XLIII. 



Sec. XLIV. 



XLV. 



XLVI. 



" XLVIL 



Hydrocephalus, 


280 


Epilepsy, 


284 


Tetanus, 


287 


Palsy, 


287 


Rheumatism, 


289 


Diseases of the Digestive Or- 




gans. 




Obstruction of the Gullet, 


290 


Mechanical distension of the Rumen 


,291 


Hoven, 


291 


The Rot, 


293 


The Rot produced by Acids, 


297 


do. do by Acorns, 


306 


do. do. by Astringent Wa- 


ters, 


307 


The Rot produced by Alum Water, 


307 


do. dc. by Sharp-edged 




Grasses, 


308 


Braxy — produced by Acids, 


310 


do. do. by Sharp-edged 




Grasses, 


313 


Prevention of Braxy and the Rot, 


314 


Diarrhoea, 


316 


Prevention of Diarrhoea, 


318 


Dysentery, 


319 


Jaundice, 


321 


Dropsy, 


322 


Hydrophobia. 


325 


Diseases of the Chest and Air 




Passages. 




Coryza, 


330 


Consumption of the Lungs, 


331 


Inflammation of the Lungs, 


333 


Pleurisy, 


334 


Diseases of the Urinary Organs. 




Inflammation of the Bladder, 


335 


Calculi in the Urinary Organs, 


335 


Diseases of the Mouth. 




Acute Thrush, 


337 


Chronic Thrush, 


338 


Diseases of the Skin. 




Pelt Rot, 


339 



CONTENTS. 



VII 



Ssc. XLVII. Erysipelas, 339 

Black Muzzle, 341 

Scab or Itch, 341 

" XLVIII. Diseases of the Foot— Foot Rot, 348 

" XL1X. Diseases of the Eye. 354 

** L. Worms — Worms in the Trachea, 355 

Fluke Worms, 356 

« LI. Flies and Ticks, 358 

The Gad Fly, 359 

Ticks and Lice, 361 

" LII. Diseases of Parturition. 

Abortion, 363 

Inversion of the Uterus, 364 

Heaving, or After-Pains, 365 

Garget, 366 

" LIII. Diseases of Young Lambs. 

Coagulation of the Milk, 367 

Diarrhoea, 368 

" LIV. Injuries and Operations. 

Wounds and their Treatment, 369 

Bruises and Strains, 375 

Ulcers, Abscesses and Tumors, 375 

Blood-letting, 376 

Castration, Docking and Marking of 

Lambs, 377 

Castration of Old Rams, • 379 

Cutting off Horns, 380 

" LY. Poisons — Animal Poisons- — Vegeta- 

ble Poisons, 381 

Mineral Poisons, 384 

" LV1. A list of Medicines employed in the 

Treatment of the Diseases of Sheep, 385 
" LYII. Appendix. 

Description of a Sheep Barn and its 

appendages, 387, 388, 389 

Analysis of sundry animal and veg- 
etable substances, 390, 391 
Analysis of Oats, by M. Fromberg, 392 
Analysis of the Ashes of sundry 

Grasses and Grains, 393 

Analysis of sundry Soils by Sprengel, 394 
Remedy for the Foot Rot, 395 



INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 

The Fat-Rumped Sheep, 18 
The Broad-Tailed Sheep, 20 
Iceland Sheep, 27 
Cretan or Wallachian Sheep, 30 
The Shepherd's Pipes, 42 
Diagram of the different Qualities of Wool, 56 
An Escurial (or Saxon) Ram, the property of Mr. Thom- 
as Noble, of Massillon, Stark county, Ohio, 61 
A Guadaloupe Ram, the property of the Society of 

Shakers, Enfield, New Hampshire, 62 

A Ewe of the Black-faced Heath Breed, 68 

A Ewe of the Cheviot Breed, 70 

The South Down Ram, 73 

The Dorset Ewe, 77 

The Romney Marsh Ewe, 83 

The Cotswold Ewe, 85 

The New Leicester Ram, 87 

Skeleton of the Sheep, 115 

The Skull of a Polled Sheep, 117 

The Incisor Teeth of the Sheep, 128 

Internal View of the Stomach, 134 

External View of the Stomach and Intestines, 142 

Microscopic View of Wool, 170 

Points of the Sheep, 190 

Ear Marks, 206 

Box for Condiments, 276 

Section of the Intestinal Tube, 303 

The Itch Insect Magnified, 344 

A section of the Sheep's Foot, 348 

The Fluke Worm, 35$ 

The Gad Fly, 359 

Entrance to a Sheep Stall, and Sheep Gates, 387 

Sheep Barn and Manger, 388 



SECTION I. 

ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. 

The Sheep is classified by naturalists as belonging to the 
Order Rumen anti a ; the Tribe Caprid^.; and the Genus 
Ovis. Of the Ovis, there are three varieties ; the Ovis Am- 
mon, or Argali ; the Ovis Musmon ; and the Ovis Aries, 
or Domestic Sheep. This last variety will form the subject 
of this work. 

[1st.] ASIATIC ARGALI, 

Professor Low observes that " the Asiatic Argali is some- 
what less than the size of a stag. He has enormous horns, 
measuring more than a foot in circum fern nee at the base, 
and from three to four feet in length, triangularly rising 
from the summit of the head, so as nearly to touch at the 
root, ascending, stretching out laterally, and bending for- 
ward at the point. He has a coat of short hair, covering a 
coat of soft white wool. The color of the fur, externally, 
is brown, becoming brownish grey in winter. There is a 
buff colored streak along the back, and a large spot of a 
lighter buff color on the haunch, surrounding and including 
the tail. The female differs from the male, in being small- 
er, in having the horns more slender and straight, and in 
the absence of the disc on the haunch. In both sexes, the 
tail is very short, the eye-lashes are whitish, and the hair 
beneath is longer than on any other parts of the body. The 
Argalies inhabit the mountains and elevated plains of Asia, 
from the Caucasus northward and eastward to Kamschatka 
and the Ocean. They are very agile and strong, but very 
timid, shunning the least appearance of danger. Their mo- 
tion is zigzag, and they stop in their course to gaze upon 
their pursuer, after the manner of the domestic sheep. They 
are usually found in very small docks, and at the rutting 
season, the males fight desperately, using their horns and 
forehead, in the manner of the common ram* They aro 



: 



10 ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. 



hunted by the people of the country for their flesh, which 
is esteemed to be savory, and for their skins, which are 
made into clothing. In autumn, after having pastured du- 
ring summer on the mountains and in secluded valleys, 
they are fat, and in high request; but as winter advances, 
they are forced to descend from the mountains in search of 
food. They then lose their plumpness, and are sought af- 
ter only for their skins. When young, they are easily ta- 
med ; but the old ones never resign their natural wildness. 
The Argali of America, or, Rocky Mountain Sheep, is 
nearly allied to, or is identical with, the Argali of Asia. — 
It is described by Spanish writers as the sheep of Califor- 
nia, and is familiar to the Indians and fur traders of Canada, 
and is called by them the ahsata, or big-horn. It surpasses 
the Asiatic Argali in size, and is consequently larger than 
the largest of our domestic sheep. It is described by Cap- 
tain Bonneville as follows : " The dimensions of a male of 
this species are, from the nose to the base of the tail, five 
feet : length of the tail, four inches : girth of the body, four 
feet: height, three feet eight inches : the horn, three feet 
six inches long, one foot three inches in circumference at 
the base ; and the horns are twisted lower than the muzzle. 
It has the head and horns of a sheep, and it is said to be de- I 
licious mutton." Its horns are very large, approaching, j 
but not touching at the base. The horns of the female are 
small, and slightly curved. Their coat is hairy, and is of a 
reddish brown color, but becomes paler in winter; and in 
spring, the old rams are nearly white. The face and nose 
are white, and the tail and buttocks present the buff colored 
.disc which distinguishes the male of the Asiatic species. — 
They collect in flocks under the guidance of a leader. They 
pasture on the steepest parts of the mountains, and on the 
approach of winter, descend into the plains. They are wild 
and timid, betaking themselves, on the least alarm, to the 
summits of the mountains. They are pursued and killed 
by the Indians for their skins and flesh. They have never 
been subjected to domestication. The Argali abounds in 
the Kocky Mountains, from the fiftieth degree of north lat- 
itude, quite down to California, generally in the highest re- 
gions capable of vegetation. Major Hamilton Smith re- 
marks: " If the American species be the same as the Asi- 
atic, which appears very probable, it can have reached the 



ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. 1 1 

New World only over the ice by Behring's Straits: And 
the passage may be conjectured as comparatively of a re- 
cent date, since the Argali has not spread eastward beyond 
the Rocky Mountains, nor to the south farther than Cali- 
fornia. " 

[2d.] THE MUSMON, OR MOUFLON, 

Still inhabits the islands of Crete and Cyprus, and the moun- 
tains of Greece. It is found in Corsica and Sardinia, where 
it is familiar to the mountaineers of the interior. It former- 
ly abounded in Spain, and even yet it is said to be seen in 
the mountains of Murcia. It is also abundant in the moun- 
tain ranges of southern Siberia, where it is subject to a 
cold rather than to a temperate climate. Everywhere, 
however, it preserves its own characters without alteration, 
while in its domesticated defendants, the common sheep, 
(if such they be, and which has yet to be proved,) we see 
a perpetual series of variations — a multitude of breeds pre- 
senting diverse characters. 

Wilson, the naturalist, describes the Musmon as follows : 
"It is usually about two and a halt feet in height, and three 
feet and a half from the nose to the commencement of the 
tail. The horns never exceed two feet in length : they 
are curved backward, and the points are turned inwards: 
the roots of the horns are very thick and wrinkled : the 
ears are of a middle size, straight and pointed: the neck is 
thick: the body round : the limbs muscular, and the body 
short. The color is generally of a dull or brownish grey, 
with some white on the fore part of the face and on the legs : 
a tuft of long hair beneath the throat : a dark streak along 
the back; and the upper part of the face black, with black 
streaks along the cheeks. The forehead of this sheep is 
particularly arched. The females are generally without 
horns, and where they do appear, they are considerably 
less than those of the male." 

The Musmon is smaller than the Argali, and its horns 
turn in at the points; whereas, those of the Argali turn out 
at the points. The coat of the Musmon consists of a brown- 
ish grey hair of no great length, concealing a short, fine, 
grey colored wool, which is full of spirals, and which cov- 
ers the whole body. W. C. Spooner remarks that, "the 
Musmons resemble the Argalies in several characters ; but 



I 2 OXIGIN OF THE SHEEP. 

they are less powerful and hardy, and inhabit lower ranges 
of mountains. They are gregarious, assembling in large 
herds in the summer; but at the rutting season, fierce con- 
tests take place between the rams, and the herd divides in- 
to smaller bands, consisting of a male and several females. 
The Musmon is with difficulty domesticated, and is less do- 
cile and sensible to acts of kindness, than the domestic 
sheep." 

[3d.] THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

" It has been considered by some naturalists that the 
Musmon was the parent stock of the domestic sheep; and 
in support of this opinion, it is stated that the Musmon has 
been known to breed with the domestic sheep, and their 
progeny is fruitful, will reproduce, when copulated togeth- 
er. Pliny mentions such alliances as common, and states 
that the progeny were termed UmhrL Sheep and goats, 
also, when copulated together, produce a progeny, which 
will reproduce ; * and the only essential differences between 
them are, that the skin of the sheep is of a loose texture, 
and in temperate climates, is generally covered with wool, 
with a small proportion of hair; whereas, the goat has a 
thick, firm skin, which, in the same climates, is most com- 
monly covered with hair, and has also a beard under its 
chin, an ornament seldom found upon the sheep. The goat 
of Cashmere and the Rocky Mountain goat, are exceptions 
to the general rule, as to the covering of the goat. 

These circumstances show a near relation in the charac- 
ters of the sheep, the goat, and the Musmon. Neverthe- 
less, the domestic sheep, particularly the large, straight 
horned breeds, if left to themselves, so as to become wild, 
as they very readily wMl do, are quite as capable of defend- 
ing and sustaining themselves, as the goat or Musmon.-— 
And, therefore, it seems most rational to suppose that the 
domestic sheep has ever been a species distinct from the 
goat and Musmon, and such it should be considered until 
the contrary is proved. 

The sheep is subject to extraordinary changes in its struc- 
ture and covering, or coat, from the varied influences of 
soil, food, and climate ; and, therefore, it is impossible to 

• Blacklock. 



0B1GIN OF THE 8HESP. IS 

trace the character of the primitive breed of sheep. " No 
animal," says Blacklock, M varies more than the sheep, and 
none adapts itself so speedily to climate. It would almost 
appear that nature, convinced of its great utility, had be- 
stowed upon it a constitution so pliant, as to enable it to ac- 
commodate itself to any point, in a wide scale of tempera- 
ture. For though its natural situation as a wool bearing 
animal, like that of man, appears to be the wine countries, 
yet with him it has spread to every quarter of the globe, bo- 
coming impressed at every change with some peculiarity, 
alterable only by a change of situation, and varying, w« 
might affirm, with the weather. Changes, occasioned by 
climates, are always limited to the fleece, horns, and dispo- 
sal of the fat, and never extend to those parts on the per- 
manence of which the animal depends for its station in the 
scale of being, as the teeth, feetf, and the digestive organs." 
Under such circumstances, it cannot be expected that wa 
can trace the origin of <he different breeds of sheep. And 
as to the qualities and management of any of the ancient 
breeds, we know only what is furnished by the Bible, and 
by Roman and Greek writers; and so meagre are the ac- 
counts which they furnish of the different breeds, that any 
thing like a regular history of the sheep is entirely out of 
the question. But as the sheep has been widely dissemi- 
nated throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa ; as its young 
are easily tamed, and its milk, flesh, and pelts were ex- 
tremely valuable to man in all ages, we may well suppose 
that it was one of the first quadrupeds which was domesti- 
cated. And as there is no animal which contributes mora 
to the welfare and comfort of man than the sheep, so, also, 
there is no one which requires more care and attention from 
hirn. 



14 ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 



SECTION II. 

ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

In early ages, flocks of sheep constituted a large propor- 
tion of the wealth of the people. It is stated in the Scrip- 
tures that Job possessed 14.000 sheep, besides oxen and 
camels; and Solomon otlered 120,000 sheep at the dedica- 
tion of the temple. The King of Moab rendered a yearly 
tribute of 200,000 sheep to the Jews, &c. Travelers assert 
that numerous flocks are still kept up in Western Africa. — 
Sir John Chardin saw flocks in the neighborhood of Alep- 
po, of immense numbers ; and Dr. Shaw states that several 
Arabian tribes, who can bring no more than three or four 
hundred horses into the field, are possessed of more than 
as many thousand camels and oxen, and treble the number 
of sheep and goats. 

In Western Asia, the customs of these nomadic shep- 
herds have been much the same from the most remote ages; 
and as scriptural descriptions of the management of sheep 
by the Patriarchs, are very similar to those which are given 
by travelers among the Arabs, as to the management of 
sheep, a few quotations from these writers may be interest- 
ing. 

It is recorded that, " Abraham and Lot dwelt in tents : 
that Abraham pitched his tent upon a mountain : and that 
he often changed his place of residence." D'Arvieux, a 
French traveler, says, "the Arabs commonly encamp on 
the tops of some little hills where there are no trees to hin- 
der them from discovering, a great way off, all that come 
and go, that they may not be surprised, having nothing else 
to fear. The}' set themselves down wherever they find 
springs of water, or rivulets in the valleys, and pasture for 
the subsistence of their cattle, and then decamp as soon aat 
that is gone, and g > and post themselves in another place, 
every fortnight, or, at most, every month. 

" They live all the summer upon these hills, always ad- 
vancing towards the North; and when winter begins to 
come ,on, they go by degrees to the South, as far as Cegsu- 
rea, of Palestine, and on the outside of the mountains of* 
Carmel. They have no other lodgings but their tenta, 



ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 15 

which they call their houses. They are entirely made of 
black goats' hair, which is an employment of the women. 
They spin and weave them. They are strong, of a close 
texture, and so stretched, that the longest and heaviest rains 
cannot penetrate through them. Their whole families, and 
all that they have in the world, even to their stables, are 
there, particularly in the winter. The tent of the Emir is 
of the same stuff, and differs from that of his subjects only 
in bigness." Hence, the figure in the song of Solomon, 
(i-5,) " black as the tents of Kedar," which is the name of 
an Arabian Nomade or Bedouin tribe, frequently mention- 
ed in the Oid Testament. This tribe dwells in tents, with 
a similar covering, to the present day. 

The Prophet, in speaking of the Messiah, says : " He 
shall feed his flock like a shepherd, he shall gather the 
lambs with his arm, and shall carry them in his bosom, and 
shall gently lead those which are with young." The same 
care and humanity are manifested by the Arabs of the pres- 
ent day. Parsons, the traveler, in speaking of them, says : 
*' It was entertaining enough to see the horde of Arabs de- 
camp. First went the sheep and -goats, in regular divis- 
ions : then followed the camels and asses, loaded with the 
tent, furniture, and kitchen utensils. These were followed 
by the old men and women, and the boys and girls on 
foot. The children that could not walk, were carried on 
the backs of the young women, and the boys and girls, and 
the smallest of the lambs and kids were carried under tha 
arms of the children. The procession was closed by the 
chief of the tribe, mounted on the very best horse." 

Greek, Roman, and Biblical writers inform us, that an- 
ciently the milk of sheep and goats was in common use; 
and Homer, in his Odyssey, relates that one half of the 
milk was first drawn from the ewe for drink, and for the 
purpose ol making cheese, and the remainder was left for 
the lamb. 

The milk of sheep and goats is used by many of the un- 
civilized, and, to some extent, by the civilized nations of 
the Eastern Continents, at the present day, as a beverage, 
and for making butter, cheese, and curds. 

The milk of sheep, in appearance, is like that of the cow, 
but is generally thicker, and yields a pale yellowish butter, 
which is always soft, and soon becomes rancid. Culiey 



16 ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

remarks, " the cheese from their milk is exceedingly pun* 
gent, and for that reason is preferred by many to that from 
the cow." In Wales, sheeps' milk is mixed with that of 
the cow, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. 

The Syrian Arabs, of the present lime, milk their ewes 
and goats; but they manufacture principally butter from 
their milk. 

Mr. Burckhardt gives the following account of their prac- 
tice : "The sheep and goats are milked during the three 
spring months, morning and evening. They are stmt out 
to pasture before sunrise, while the lambs or kids remain in 
or near the camp. About two o'clock the herd returns, x 
and the lambs are allowed to satiate themselves; after 
which, the ewes belonging to each tent, are tied to a long 
cord, and milked one after another. The same process 
occurs at sunset. From a hundred ewes or goats, (the milk 
of which is always mixed together,) the Arabs expect, in 
common years, about eight pounds of butter per day, or about 
seven cwt. in the three spring months. 

The system of cotting was known and adopted, when ne- 
cessary, by the Israelites, and also by the Greeks, Romans, 
and Germans. In a very ancient Anglo-Saxon manuscript, 
(says Turner,) a shepherd is represented as saying : ** In the 
tirst part of the morning I drive my sheep to their pasture, 
and stand over them, in heat and in cold, with dogs, lest the 
wolves destroy them. I lead them back to their folds, and 
milk them twice a day ; and I move their folds, and make 
cheese and butter." — (Turner's Anglo-Sax., ii— 540.) 

In olden times, as now in Spain, and in many other parts 
of the world, sheep-shearing was a time of feasting and re- 
joicing; it was the harvest of the shepherd. 

The shears used for shearing are a very ancient inven- 
tion. They were termed forfex by the Romans. In a col- 
lection of antique gems at Berlin, (Germany,) called the 
" Stosch Collection," is a gem bearing a representation of 
a newly shorn lamb and the shears, which are exactly sim- 
ilar to those now in use. 

The sheep- hook was used from the most remote period, 
as at the present time, among the nations of Europe and 
Asia, to seize the sheep, by laying hold upon its legs. 

Music was a common amusement of the ancient shep- 
herds ; and the instrument most commonly used, was call- 



ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP* 17 

ed the fistula, or shepherd's pipes. It is made of seven or 
more pieces of reed or cane, of unequal length and thick- 
ness, joined together, side by side. The hollow parts of 
each tube, being of different sizes and depths, make sounds 
corresponding to the different notes. 

They are played upon by applying the mouth, and blow- 
ing into the ends of the reeds, and moving the instrument 
back and forth, from side to side, with great velocity, so as 
to touch the desired notes. " In many parts of the Alps, 
and even in France, (says Goldsmith*,) the shepherd and 
his pipes are still continued with true antique simplicity. — 
The flock is regularly penned every evening, to preserve 
them from the wolf, and the shepherd returns homeward 
at sunset, with his sheep following him, and seemingly 
pleased with the sound of his pipe, which is blown with a 
reed, and resembles the chanter of a bagpipe. Before I 
had seen them trained in this manner, I had no conception 
of those descriptions in the old pastoral poets, of the shep- 
herd leading his flock from one country to another, As I 
had been used to see these harmless creatures driven be- 
fore their keepers, I supposed all the rest was pure inven- 
tion." 

This mode of using the shepherd's pipes is mentioned in 
Homer's Iliad, (Book 18th, line 526 ;) and they are, doubt- 
less, one of th© most ancient of all musical instruments. 



18 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 



SECTION III. 

ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP 




FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. 

This breed of sheep is described by Dr. Anderson, the 
traveler, as follows: "The flocks of all the Tartar hordes 
resemble one another, by having a large yellow muzzle, 
the under jaw ofien projecting beyond the upper; by hav- 
ing long hanging ears, and by the horns of the adult ram 
being large, spiral, wrinkled, angular, or bent in a lunar 
form. They have slender legs in proportion to their bod- 
ies, a high chest, large hanging testicles, and tolerably fine 
wool mixed with hair. The body of the ram, and some- 
times of the ewe, swells gradually with fat towards the pos- 
teriors, where a solid mass is formed on the rump, and falls 
over the anus in place of a tail, divided into two hemis- 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 19 

pheres, which take the form of the hips, with a little button 
of a tail in the middle, to be felt by the finger." 

There is, also, a hornless variety of the fat-rumped sheep. 
The annexed cut is a correct portrait of a hornless fat- 
rumped Persian ram, which belonged to the Zoological So- 
ciety of London. Sheep of this breed oft:m weigh as much 
as 200 pounds : and this may be considered as the largest 
of the unimproved breeds. The soft, oily fat, which forms 
on the rump, often amounts to from 20 to 40 lbs. In the 
neighborhood of Caucasus and Taurida, the hind quarters 
of the sheep are salted as hams, and sent in large quantities 
to the northern parts of Turkey. 

It appears from the above description, that the fat-rump- 
ed sheep, in some parts of Russia, bears a fineish fleece; 
but generally it is coarse, and is much mixed with hair, and 
is only fit tor inferior manufactures. They are very hardy, 
notwithstanding their bad forms. 

This breed of sheep is found, in its purest state, in the 
deserts of Great Tartary — no other variety being near to 
contaminate its blood. It reaches far into the interior, and 
northern parts of Russia, and is much disseminated in Chi- 
na, Persia, Thibet, Hindos:an, Aski Minor, and Eastern Af- 
rica. It is found in Palestine in greater numbers than any 
other breed — the largest proportion of the sheep of North- 
ern Asia being of this description. 

It is supposed by some persons, and it is not impossible, 
that this breed may be the same which was bred by the 
Patriarchs injhe days of Abraham and Moses. It is said 
that, " Moses took the fat, and the rump, and all the fat 
which was upon the inwards, and burnt them upon the al- 
tar, for a burnt offering." And these words seem to in- 
dicate a similarity in the shapes of the ancient and pres- 
ent breeds of Western Asia. 

The causes of the peculiar deposition of fat upon the tail 
and rump of different breeds of sheep, will probably ever 
be a mystery. Fat is a secreted tissue which intermingles 
with, and surrounds the muscular pans, and envelopes the 
viscera within the body. Ordinarily, it is dispersed through- 
out the body; but in many of the sheep of the above men- 
tioned countries, it accumulates principally upon the rump 
or tail. Professor Pallas conjectures that this character ari- 
ses, in the fat-rumped sheep, from their feeding upon the 



to 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 



bitter and saline plants, found upon the borders of the Cas- 
pian and Black seas. And he asserts, that when they are 
removed from the places where these plants grow, the fatty 
excrescence becomes less. But, as the fat-tailed and fat- 
rumped sheep are varieties which are widely dispersed, it 
seems more probable that they may have been produced by 
accident, and may also have been perpetuated by accident, 
design, or fancy. 



ISM 



ft 



/*, 



mm 



W 






t->$/-~ . Jit 



.; 



BROAD-TAILED SHEEP. 

" This race of sheep is more extensively diffused than 
any other; it is found throughout Asia and a great part of 
Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts of Eu- 
rope. They differ as the ordinary European race, in the 
nature of their covering. In Madagascar, and in some oth- 
er hot climates, they are hairy ; at the Cape of Good Hope, 
ihey are covered with coarse, hard wool ; in the Levant, 
their wool is extremely fine. These sheep are generally 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 21 

larger than those of Europe, in which circumstance only, 
and the form and size of their tails, they differ from them." 

" The broad-tailed sheep are of three species: In the 
one species, the tail is not only broad, but long." Dr. Rus- 
sel, in his history of Aleppo, gives the following account of 
it, as it appears in Syria : " The dead weight of one of 
these sheep will amount to 50 or 60 lbs., of which the tail 
makes up 15 or 16 lbs.; but some of the largest, that have 
been fattened with care, weigh 150 lbs., the tail alone com- 
posing one-third of the whole weight. This broad, flattish 
tail is mostly covered with long wool, and becoming very 
small at the extremity, turns up. Animals of this extraor- 
dinary size, (150 lbs.) are, however, very rare, and are 
kept up in yards, so as to be in little danger of hurting their 
tails from the brushes. The shepherds, in several places 
in Syria, fix a thin piece of board to the under part, which 
is not like the rest, covered with wool, and to this board are 
sometimes added small wheels," 

This necessity of carriages for the tails of African sheep, 
is mentioned by Herodotus. Rudolphus, and others; and, 
from this circumstance, it appears that this is a very ancient 
breed of sheep. 

'• Another species have the tail broad and flat, but not 
very long, covered with wool above, but smooth below, and 
divided by a furrow into two lobes of flesh. These are al- 
so said to weigh (in some cases) above thirty pounds." 

'* In a third species, a small, thin tail projects from the 
centre of this fleshy excrescence." " The composition of 
this excrescence (of the tail), is said to be a mixture of flesh 
with a great proportion of fat, and to be very delicate food. 
But the animal has little other fat, the tail being in him the 
repository of that fat which lays about the loins of other 
sheep. In cold climates, the fat of the tail resembles suet ; 
but in warm ones, as at the Cape of Good Hope, Madagas- 
car, &c, it is so soft that, when melted, it will not harden 
again." — (Livingston.) 

Dr. Russell says : M It is entirely composed of a substance 
between marrow and fat, serving very often in the kitchen 
instead of butter, and cut into small pieces, makes an in- 
gredient in various dishes." 

Mr, Wilde, in his narrative, makes the following obser- 
vations upon a variety of this breed of sheep, and thtiir 



22 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 

management in Palestine : " These sheep are of a peculiar, 
and very handsome breed : are mostly low sized : the fore 
parts of their bodies are of a fawn color, the hinder parts 
white : they have long, pendent, silken ears, and sweeping 
tails : their faces more oval and longer than the species in 
these countries, and they have altogether a more pleasing, 
docile, and mild expression. 

" It is almost incredible, the influence that the shepherds 
of Palestine possess over .heir flocks. Many of them have 
no dogs, but a word is sufficient to make them understand 
and obey the will of their shepherd. He sleeps among 
them at night, and in the morning leads them to pasture, 
always walking before them, guiding them to those places 
where they can enjoy the best food, and resting, when they 
have obtained a sufficiency; or, during the heat of the day, 
in some cool, shady place, where they all immediately lie 
down around him. 

" Shortly after leaving the city, we met several flocks of 
sheep, preceded by their shepherds, walking towards Jeru- 
salem. These Arabs, clad in the turbans and simple abbas 
worn by their class, and carrying a wooden crock in their 
hands, walked in front. After the sheep came some young 
goats and lambs, and the whole procession closed with 
about two dozen patriarchal looking goats, which brought 
up the rear. These goats have long horns, and pendent 
ears, that hang almost to the ground ; and their hair is 
a glossy black of the finest grain. These shepherds are 
often to be seen about sunset, slowly approaching the city 
from all sides, to seek shelter for their flocks, during the 
night, in some of the deep vallies with which it is surround- 
ed, carrying the iambs in their bosoms. He has generally 
two or three favorite lambs, which do not mix with the 
flock, but follow close at his side, frisking and fondling 
about him like dogs. Indeed, the degree of intelligence 
that exists between the Arab and his flock, is truly aston- 
ishing. M They know his voice and follow him," and " ho 
careth for the sheep." It was probably to such shepherds 
as these, that the angel announced the glad tidings of the 
Saviour's birth. And as I met them walking towards Jeru- 
salem, the full force of all the beautiful imagery, «cmd the 
many touching similes, derived from such scenes and asso- 
ciations, and so often alluded to, came vividly before me." 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 23 

SHEEP OF PERSIA AND HINDOSTAN. 

There are various races of sheep in Persia. A race of 
cheep exists in Persia, and to the north of it, which de- 
serves to be mentioned as being, perhaps, the nearest in its 
characters to the wild race or Argali. This peculiar race 
is proper to the north pails of the country on the Caspian, 
but is grearly diffused in Persia, and extends across the In- 
dus over a great part of Hindcstan. It is covered with a 
coarse, hairy wool, of a grey color ; its horns are bent out- 
ward, in the manner of the Argali : and what is worthy of 
note, its head resembles the common picture of the ram, as 
depicted in Eastern sculptures. 

There is, also, another very remarkable race in Persia 
which is entirely destitute of tail, and has an accumulation 
of fat upon the posterior parts. This breed is frequently 
termed the Persian, but its principal habitation is the shores 
of the Red Sea, and it seems to be of African, rather than 
Asiatic origin. 

The fat-tailed sheep also abounds in Persia and Hindos- 
tan. Of these two last mentioned kinds, the fat-tailed are 
the most numerous in those two countries. Much wool is 
grown in those districts of Persia where a majority of the 
inhabitants lead a pastoral life. The most valuable is found 
in the province of Kerman. This is a very mountainous 
country, hot in summer, and intensely cold in winter. — 
The wool of the sheep is fine in quality, and that which 
grows at the roots of the hair of the goat, is nearly as fine. 
The latter is manufactured into various fabrics, which al- 
most equal the beautiful shawls of Cashmere. The fine 
felt carpets, for which Persia is so celebrated, are manu- 
factured from the wool of the sheep, either in Kerman or 
Koprasan. Although those districts are remotely situated 
from each other, the wool of the sheep nearly corresponds, 
and " is remarkable for being spirally curved, and of a grey 
or mixed black and white color. The sheep are below the 
ordinary size, the horns of the ram curved back, and spiral 
at the tip, the ears pendulous, and the tail not very broad." 
— (Fraser's Travels.) 

And the shepherds of those countries lead a wandering 
life, much like that of the Arabs of Syria and Palestine. 

Some parts of Persia, and also Astracan, on the Caspian 
Sea, are noted for the fine furs which they produce ; but 



£4 ASIATIC AND AFEICAN SHEEP, 

these furs are the skins of lambs* taken from the mothers, 
and slaughtered before the natural birth. 

THIBETIA^ SHEEP, 

The sheep of Thibet are very numerous, and are chiefly 
a small variety of the fat-romped Persian and Abyssinian 
breed, with black heads and necks. Some are hairy, with 
short wool underneath ; while others bear a long, soft, and 
fine wool. It is from the latter that many of the costly In- 
dian shawls are made. Much of this peculiar wool finds its 
way to Hindostan, and is there manufactured. The mutton 
of these sheep is said to be peculiarly well flavored. 

CHINESE SHEEP. 

In China are a variety of breeds. The fat-tailed and fat- 
ramped varieties abound extensively in the southern parts 
of China 5 and in certain districts a small breed is found, 
which resembles in form the European breeds, and which 
produces a line, and very useful long wool. 

But one of the most singular breeds in that country, is 
the lor.g-legged sheep, so called on account of the extraor- 
dinary length of their legs. This breed have horns which 
are of a middle size, and curved : the forehead is arched : 
the neck short, with a collar of hair reaching from the nape 
of it to the shoulders : the legs, head, and mane are of a 
reddish brown color : the tail is long, and the wool short and 
coarse. 

E&YPT. 

In Egypt, both varieties of the fat-tailed sheep prevail r 
but those with long tails, reaching nearly or quite to the 
ground, are more numerous than the broad-tailed breed. — 
They are of a large sifce, mostly with black heads and necks, 
an external coat of hair, and well-flavored flesh. 

ETHIOPIA, 

Ha? sheep similar to those of Egypt in most respects, with 
black heads and necks, and the remainder of their bodies 
white. Others are quite white, with tails reaching nearly 
to the ground, and curved at the extremity. — (Dapper's Af- 
rica.) Here, also, appear the fat-ramped sheep, with black 



ASIATIC AND AFRICA*? SHEEP. 25 

heads and necks, but of a smaller size than the Persian 
breed. 

ABYSSINIA. 

In this country, the sheep are taller than those of Egypt, 
and are all black; their heads large, and their ears re- 
markably short and small. They, also, like the other na- 
tive sheep within the tropics, have an external covering of 
hair. It is in this region that the many-horned sheep is 
found; many having four, and some writers have asserted 
that individuals have been seen with six horns. 

MADAGASCAR. 

Dr. Anderson states that the sheep of this Island all have 
broad tails, like those of Africa; that they have a close, 
thick coat of short hair, very smooth and thick, like the 
coat of a well-dressed horse, but the hair suffer, and thick- 
er set on the skin, and the color a fine nut brown : that all 
the sheep on this island are of this kind. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 

" The native sheep of this region are of the broad-tailed 
breed. They are of every variety of color, black, brown, 
bay, but mostly spotted : their necks are small, their ears 
long and pendulous. They are covered with strong, friz- 
zled hair, of which little use is made, except for cushions 
and mattrasses." — (Barrow.) Since this colony has been 
ceded to England, Merinos have been successfully introdu- 
ced into it, and much good wool is now sent from thence 
to England. 

ANGOLA, 

Is situated on the south-western coast of Africa. It posses- 
ses a singular kind of sheep, which is thus described in the 
4i Animal Kingdom : " It is called the Zenu. Its legs are 
long and slender, but arms and shanks are muscular and 
strong. There is a slight elevation at the withers, the 
chest is narrow and flat, and falling in between the arms ; 
the false ribs project, and give to the carcass a strong re- 
semblance to the Zebu. The fat is most singularly dispo- 
sed. It is taken from the taij- or rump, and is distributed 



26 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 

over three parts of the animal. A small portion of it is 
spread over the posterior part of the loin, and the com- 
mencement of the haunch. A more decided accumulation 
is found on the poll, and precisely of the semi-fluid charac- 
ter, which the fat assumes in the tail, or the rump of other 
Eastern sheep. This mass commences from the base of 
the ears, and extends backwards, in the form of a rounded 
projection, half way down the neck. Under the jaw, ex- 
tending downward, and covering the larynx, is a third col- 
lection of soft fatty matter." 

This variety of the sheep is found in no other part of the 
world. 

GUINEA. 

In this country are two kinds of sheep: "One of the 
kinds is small, and, in some respects, resembles European 
sheep. Their coat is hairy, like that of the goat, with a 
sort of mane, like the lion, on the neck, and so on the rump, 
and a bunch at the end of the tail. 

" The most numerous breed in Guinea, is of a different 
character. The male is horned, the horns generally form- 
ing a semi-circle, with the points forward : the females are 
hornless; the ears are pendulous, and black spots are dis- 
tributed on the sides of the head and neck, as well as body." 
— (Animal Kingdom.) 

NORTHERN AFRICA, OR BARBARY. 

" Marcus Columeda, (uncle of L. J. M. Columeda, who 
wrote an excellent treatise on husbandry,) a rich colonist 
who lived at Cadiz during the reign of the Emperor Clau- 
dius, and made Agriculture his pleasure and pursuit, was 
struck with the beauty of the wild rams that were brought 
from Africa, to be* exhibited at the Roman games. He 
coupled those with Taventian ewes, which were celebrated 
for the softness of their wool, and procured, by this means, 
a race whose fleeces resembled that of their dam in soft- 
ness, and that of their sire in the color and fineness of tho 
wool." This circumstance shows that north-western Afri- 
ca, in those clays, possessed a breed of very fine wooled 
sheep; and that country, at this time, possesses a superior 
breed of sheep, which are indigenous to it, and whose wool 
is glossy and nearly as soft and line as that of the Merino; 



ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 



n 



but it is straight, that is, it wants the spiral curve ; and 
this deficiency renders its wool less valuable than that of 
the Merino. 



SECTION IV. 
EUROPEAN SHEEP. 




ICELAND SHEEP. 

The sheep of Iceland are of two kinds: The first termed 
the native, or original breed, is much like the Argaii. They 
are of small size, and their color is from dun to almost 
black. The second kind is larger, the fleece white, and is 
supposed to have originated from more, southern climes. 
The fleece of these breeds consists of two coats ; one of 
extremely coarse hair, which hardly merits the name 
of wool, and another beneath it of a softer and finer quality, 
but so mixed as to make it difficult to separate them. This 



28 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

fleece is very thick and impervious to cold and wet; but is 
of inferior value for manufacturing, and is used for horse 
collars, and some wool is exported to other countries for 
this use. These sheep have four and some of them five 
horns, of considerable size, and are always spiral. They 
are very hardy, and are never stabled, but seek their food 
by following the horses, and eating the grass and moss 
which they uncover — their own feet being too feeble to dig 
in the snow. Their shelter is the jutting rock or moun- 
tain's caverns. At xhe approach of a storm, they run vio- 
lently towards the sea, and are sometimes precipitated into 
it by each other. If they are surprised by a snow storm 
before they can reach the coast, they then turn their heads 
towards each other, and patiently expect under their fleecy 
covering, the aid of their owners, who do not fail to search 
for and relieve them as soon as possible. They distinguish 
the spot on which they are buried by an exhalation which 
arises from their breath. If this aid is so long delayed as 
to subject the sheep to the danger of starving, they recipro- 
cally feed upon each other's fleeces. This race is extend- 
ed to the Danish Islands, where it is equally neglected 
through the winter, and their instincts improve by this 
neglect. They keep each other warm by pressing closely 
together when the bleak winds pinch them, and those from 
the centre relieve in turn those which, in the outer part of 
the circle, are exposed to the severity of the blast. Thus, 
necessity sharpens the inventions ot beasts as well as those 
of men." — (Livingston.) 

RUSSIAN SHEEP. 

The following not very particular account of Russian 
Sheep is supplied by. Mr. Youatt: 

" Far more attention continues to be made to the breed- 
ing of sheep than of cattle, through the whole of this im- 
mense Empire. All the wandering tribes possess a great 
number of sheep. Many of the inferior boors and Cos- 
sacks have flocks consisting of many hundreds. 

" The characters of the sheep differ materially in the va- 
rious districts. Towards the North, they are small, short- 
tailed, and bear a coarse and harsh wool. About the river 
Don, and still more towards the centre, and on the banks of 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 29 

the Dnieper, and in some districts of the Ukraine, they yield 
a better wool ; and thence the greater part of the material 
for the inland cloth manufacturies is supplied. In the neigh- 
borhood of the Baltic, a still superior breed of sheep is 
found, and the Dago and Oesel Islands are celebrated for 
their wool. The half cloths that are manufactured from 
it, have often as fine and close a substance as that which is 
imported from Great Britain. 

" The finest of the Russian wools are exported from Odes- 
sa, on the Black Sea. It is the produce of all the neigh- 
boring provinces, but principally of the Crimea. There is 
no district of the Empire so fitted by nature for the pastur- 
age of sheep. There are three kinds of sheep in the Cri- 
mea, and in Taurida. The common breed is white, or 
black, or grey, with very coarse wool, and a long tail cov- 
ered with fat. They are kept in exceedingly large flocks. 
A rich Tartar will frequently possess 50,000 sheep. The 
grey sheep produce the grey lamb skins, 30,000 of which 
are exported every year. Fifty or sixty thousand black 
lambs' skins, which are also much valued, are exported 
from the Crimea. 

"The mountain sheep are smaller than those of the 
plains. Their wool is beautifully fine, and, even before 
the improvement which many of the flocks have under- 
gone, used to find its way to the French manufacturies. — 
The Crimea was scarcely in the possession of Russia, ere 
many attempts were made to improve the sheep, naturally 
so valuable. Merinos were, in process of time, introduced 
here, as in every part of Europe. A few have been culti- 
vated as a pure flock ; more have been employed in impro- 
ving the native breeds ; and the consequence is, that the 
wool exported from Odessa is increasing in quantity and 
value every year." 

EUROPEAN TURKEY AND GREECE. 

" The sheep of these countries do not correspond with 
their ancient form. They are of small size, and indifferent 
form. They are often of the flat-tailed variety, exhibiting, 
in this respect, an affinity with the sheep of Asia Minor 
and the adjacent countries. In the Islands of the Archipel- 
ago, few sheep are reared. Some of them are of the.Syri- 
an breed, having long flat tails. But there is a peculiar 



30 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 



race existing in some of the. Islands, which have several 
horns, and long hairy wool." — (W. C. Spooner.) 

SWITZERLAND. 

There are several varieties of the native sheep of this 
country. The valley sheep are mwch like the English 
long wooled breeds. The mountain breeds have shorter 
and finer wool than the valley breeds, and have been much 
improved by crosses with the Merino. 

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 

The original breeds of these two countries are mostly 
long wooled, and are very similar to the English lowland 
breeds. 




CRETAN, OR WALLACHIAN SHEEP. 

The Cretan sheep is said to be common in Wallachia, 
Hungary, Austria, and the Western parts of Asia ; but along 
the Danube is its principal habitat. It is of the long-tail- 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 31 

ed variety, though without any tendency to a fatty enlarge- 
ment of the tail. On the face, the hair is short and of a 
rusty black. On the body, the wool is white and long, per- 
fectly straight, (that is, has no spiral curve,) thick set" 1 , and 
wiry, and is much mixed with hair. Its horns are very 
large, adding greatly to its striking and picturesque appear- 
ance. The horns of the male rise almost perpendicularly 
from the skull, making a series of spiral curves in their as- 
cent, while in the female they diverge, taking a lateral di- 
rection, and then ascending.. But there is probably some 
little variation in the horns of this breed, as in those of most 
other breeds. 

This breed of sheep is vicious and unruly, and of great 
strength. In certain characteristics it has considerable re- 
semblance to one variety of the Persian sheep, and to the 
Black -faced Heath breed of Scotland. 

AUSTRIAN AND HUNGARIAN 

Sheep were formerly altogether coarse wooled ; but in the 
year 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported Merinos 
from Spain, and placed them at Mercopoil, in Hungary, 
where an agricultural school was established. Other im- 
portations of Spanish sheep were afterwards made into the 
Austrian dominions. Within the last thirty years, great 
improvements have been made in the sheep of those coun- 
tries, and much of their wool is nearly or quite equal to the 
best Saxon. 

SWEDISH SHEEP. 

The native sheep of Sweden, Denmark, Norway and 
Northern Russia, are an inferior race in all respects, and 
nearly correspond in their appearance and qualities. Their 
head is long and thin ; the neck arched ; the eye small ; 
the countenance mild ; the legs and tail without wool ; the 
wool coarse, but useful for inferior manufactures. 

The Swedes are statied to have been the first nation in 
Europe which imported Merino sheep, with a view to natu- 
ralize them ; though the most northern part of this country 
is burnt up by a sun which never sets, and the whole is des- 
olated by a winter of six months, during which the ground 
is covered with uninterrupted snow. Notwithstanding this, 



32 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

Mr. Alstroemer imported a flock of Merino sheep into Swe- 
den, in 1723; and being successful in the management 
of them, the government instituted a school of shepherds in 
1739," and granted bounties to the sellers of good and fine 
wool; and these bounties were continued until 1792. At 
present, Sweden raises fine wool sufficient for its own con- 
sumption. 

Their system of management is as follows : " Both the 
native and imported sheep, after having been pastured du- 
ring the day, are usually housed at night at all seasons, on 
account of the great number of wolves. The peasantry and 
small farmers have these houses too confined. The more at- 
tentive cultivators lodge their sheep in large airy buildings, 
the windows of which are always open, and the doors are 
made of hurdles. The native Swedish flocks are kept in these 
buildings when the weather is unusually severe ; the Meri- 
nos are housed during the six winter months ; but scarcely 
any inclemency of the weather will prevent the whole 
flock being driven out daily, at least a few minutes, in order 
to breathe the fresh air, while the sheep house is cleaned. 
The Merinos are seldom used for breeding until they are 
two and a half years old, and are fattened for the butcher 
at seven. — (Messrs. Youatt & Parry.) 

DENMARK. 

The Danes first carried Merino sheep from Sweden in 
1789 ; and in 1797, the government of Denmark imported 
three hundred sheep from Spain, from the celebrated 
breeds of Escurial, Paular, Gaudaloupe, Infantado, Mon- 
tarco, and Negretti. They were placed at Esserum, eight 
leagues from Copenhagen. The Danes have been success- 
ful in the management of these sheep, and their crosses 
with the native sheep, and Denmark now exports nearly a 
million pounds of wool, one half of which is represented to 
be of the finest quality of Merino. 

PRUSSIA. 

The ancient breeds of this country had coarse wool, val- 
ued at from 10 to 15 cents per lb. The first step made to- 
wards their improvement, was made by Mr. Fink, an enter- 
prising agriculturist. His first effort was to obtain the na- 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 33 

tive Silesian breed of the districts of Namslau and Oels, 
which had long been celebrated for the comparative fine- 
ness of their wool. Some improvement was effected ; but 
not being fully satisfied with those sheep, in 1768 he ob- 
tained Merinos from Saxony; and in 1779, he imported 
three rams and twenty ewes directly from Spain. His suc- 
cess, and the great improvement made by crossing these 
sheep with his native flocks, attracted the attention of the 
Prussian government. In 1780, the King of Prussia im- 
ported 100 rams and 200 ewes from Spain. Afterwards 
he commissioned Mr. Fink to import from Spain a flock of 
one thousand of the choicest Merinos ; and a school was 
established to instruct in their management, at the head of 
which Mr. Fink was placed. — (Lasteyrie.) 

At the present day, many of the Prussian flocks rival in 
fineness the purest Saxon, and command an equal price 
for their fleeces ; and the manner in which they are man- 
aged is much the same as in Saxony — the climate of the 
two countries being very similar, 

PRUSSIAN SILESIA. 

The native sheep are small, with long necks and legs, 
and the head, belly and legs devoid of wool. In the dis- 
tricts of Namslau and Oels, was a superior breed, so far as 
the wool was concerned. Merinos were introduced into 
this province by the Count Von Maguis, soon after their im- 
portation into Prussia. The management of them in Sile- 
sia is very similar to that of Saxony ; only that more intel- 
ligence and care has been bestowed upon them, and, con- 
sequently, many of their flocks excel those of Saxony. — 
Men of the greatest experience are employed, who make it 
a business to go from farm to farm, to examine sheep, and 
to select the best animals of each sex for breeders. After 
about forty years of careful experiment and practice, Sile- 
sia has obtained a breed of sheep whose fleeces are of ex- 
tremely even fineness, being equally fine on the neck, back, 
and sides. 

At a meeting of the New York Farmer's Club, Mr, 
Heischman communicated much valuable information as 
to the management of these sheep, and exhibited six speci- 
mens of wool from the most celebrated flocks of Prussian 
Silesia, where the finest and best wool in all Europe is 



34 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

grown, and one was from a ram that was sold for $4,000. 
In the fine or perfect staple, there are about 80 spiral 
curves to the inch, and the fleece is about one and a half 
inches thick. It took many years to obtain this fineness of 
wool, or the perfect staple. The number of fibres of wool 
to a square inch of a German coarse-wooled sheep,, is 
5,500 ; in a mixture of the Merino with this breed of the 
tenth generation, about 18,000 ; in the twentieth generation, 
the fine wool predominates — the color is darker, and there 
is plenty of yolk ; in this generation there are 27,000 fi- 
bres to the square inch ; and in the thirtieth generation, 
from 40,000 to 48,000 fibres. Folds in the skin were found 
on these fine-wooled animals. 

To obtain this extra quality of wool, the sheep are kept 
at a nearly uniform temperature — 60 of Fahrenheit, or be- 
low, and are never allowed to be much exposed to rain or 
dust — both of which are injurious to the fleece — nor to mid- 
day heat of the summer's sun, and are regularly supplied 
with water and varieties of food. 

SAXON SHEEP. 

The original sheep of Saxony consisted of two varieties : 
one bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a 
fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. Both 
of these breeds have been extensively crossed with the Me- 
rino, and very many mixed flocks now exhibit fleeces little 
inferior to those of the purest Rscurial sheep. 

In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Sax- 
ony, introduced Merino sheep into his dominions by a grant 
from the King of Spain. One hundred and nineteen ewes 
and one hundred and ten rams were selected, principally 
from the Escurial flocks, then the King's private property, 
under the care and management of the monks of the Escu- 
rial monastry, and which were considered to be the finest 
sheep in the kingdom. These sheep were shipped at Cadiz, 
in the month of May, 1765, and all arrived safe in Saxony, 
except eight which died on their passage. They were ac- 
companied by two Spanish shepherds, who remained with 
and took care of the flock till the middle of the next year. 
During this time they instructed Saxon shepherds in the 
care and management of sheep. 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 35 

In order to render these sheep beneficial to the country, 
the Elector appointed commissioners to superintend the 
sheep establishments which were formed at Lohmen, Ren- 
nersdorf, and Stolpen. 

At the end often years they were found to have had all 
possible success — the sheep of pure blood preserving every 
valuable quality. In the year 1777, the Elector procured 
another importation of one hundred and ten Merinos from 
Spain, which were selected from the best flocks of Leon, 
Escurial, Cavagnon, Negretti, Montareo, and Sorian. — 
These sheep exceeded the first importation in beauty of 
form, and quality of wool. The cost of them was forty rix 
dollars per head. 

Nevertheless, the pure Escurial breed — the kind which 
Mr. H. D. Grove imported from Saxony into America, in 
the years 1827 and 1828 — are the most valued, and are the 
kind which are generally called Saxon sheep in the United 
States. The Escurial breed have longer legs, necks, and 
heads than some other breeds of Merinos, with rather narrow 
but deep chests; but they are generally well proportioned, 
and are good milkers. Specimens may be selected from 
the best flocks which rival in symmetry of form any other 
breed whatever. Compared with other breeds of Merinos, 
they are small, and their fleeces are light. One cause of 
their lightness is, that they have less yolk in their wool 
than most other breeds of Merinos, and therefore they do 
not bear exposure to cold rainy weather so well as some 
other breeds. The weight of the ewe fleeces is from 1| to 
2£ lbs., and on wethers and rams, from &| to 4 lbs. The 
finest and purest flocks yield heavier fleeces than those 
which are crossed with coarse-wooled sheep. 

According to Mr. Carr, (a large sheep-owner in Germa- 
ny,) the Infantado Merinos are also cultivated in their pu- 
rity in Saxony, and are described by him as having a short- 
er body than the other, (Escurials) and the head and neck 
comparatively short and broad ; the nose {of the ewes) short, 
and somewhat turned up, and the body round. The wool 
is often matted upon the neck, back, and thighs, and grows 
upon the head to the eyes, and upon the legs to the very 
feet. The yolk is almost pitchy, so as to render the wash- 
ing difficult. The average weight of their fleeces is, on 



36 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

ewes, from %\ to 3£ lbs. ; on rams and wethers, from 4 to 
6 lbs. 

Mr. W. C. Spooner observes : " Many attempts have 
been made to amalgamate these breeds, but without suc- 
cess ; the advantages of each one can only be retained by 
preserving them pure." 

This statement agrees with the experience of those in the 
United States, who have crossed the Escurial Saxon with 
other breeds of Merinos ; a tender breed has generally been 
the result of the cross. 

Also some of the breeders of Merino sheep in Spain have 
latterly sent to Saxony for Escurial rams, and crossed with 
them upon their flocks, and with the same results. The 
size of their sheep was lessened, and the constitution of 
their flocks was injured. — (See A. Agriculturist for 1846, 
pa. 15.) Nevertheless, crosses o£ the Escurial breed with 
coarse-wooled sheep of British origin, produce hardy ani- 
mals — hardier than the pure Escurials. 

Mr. Carr observes: "These sheep cannot thrive in a 
damp climate, and it is quite necessary that they should 
have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture, of short and 
not over nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy 
or marshy ground, even once or twice in autumn, they are 
sure to die of liver complaint (i. e., the rot,) in the follow- 
ing spring. If they are permitted to eat wet grass, or are 
frequently exposed to rain, they disappear by hundreds with 
consumption. In these countries it is found that the higher 
bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender. 
They are always housed at night, even in summer, except 
in the very finest weather, when they are folded in the dis- 
tant fallows, but never taken to pasture till the dew is off 
the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors alto- 
gether, and are fed with a small quantity of sound hay, and 
every variety of straw which has not suffered from wet, and 
which is varied at each feed. They pick it over carefully, 
eating the finer parts, and any corn which may have been 
left by the threshers. Abundance of good water, and rock 
salt in their cribs, are indispensables." 

Dr. Bright remarks : " Baron Geisler was, some years 
since, one of the most successful breeders of Merino sheep, 
and for many years he has exercised unwearied assiduity 
by crossing and re-crossing, so that by keeping the most 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 37 

accurate registers of the pedigree of each sheep, he has 
been enabled to proceed with a mathematical precision in 
the regular and progressive improvement of the whole 
stock. Out of seventeen thousand sheep, comprising his 
flock, there is not one whose whole family he cannot trace 
by reference to his books." He considers purity of blood 
the first requisite towards perfection in the fleece. He 
adopts pretty nearly the same system mentioned by Mr. 
Carr, and keeps the old separate from each other. And 
among his regulations we find the following: " For four- 
teen days before the coupling season, the rams should be 
daily fed with oats ; and this food should be continued not 
only during that particular period, but for fourteen days af- 
terward ; and one ram will thus be sufficient for eight ewes, 
provided great care and attention is paid to him in every 
other respect during the whole season. 

" During the lambing period, a shepherd should be con- 
stantly, day and night, in the cote, in order that he may 
place the lamb, as soon as it is cleaned, together with its 
mother, in a separate pen which has been before prepared. 
The ewes which have lambed, should, during a week, be 
driven neither to water nor to pasture ; but low troughs of 
water, for this purpose, are to be introduced into each par- 
tition, in order that they may easily and at ail times quench 
their thirst. 

" It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley- 
meal into the water ; for, by this means, the quality of the 
ewes' milk is much increased. "When the lambs are so 
strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by de- 
grees from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest 
oats, being suffered, at first, to go to them only three times 
a day — early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the even- 
ing, and so continue till they can travel to pasture, and ful- 
ly satisfy themselves. 5 ' 

The following observations of Mr. H. D. Grove, will fur- 
ther illustrate their management : " The Germans keep 
their sheep under comfortable shelter during the winter. — 
By this means, they do not require, in the first place, so 
much provender ; secondly, the tip ends of the wool do not 
get weather-beaten, which is an injury ; thirdly, a great 
quantity of manure is saved. They hurdle their sheep du- 
ring summer, for the purpose of manuring the land, which 



«>0 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

makes it more productive. They raise large quantities of 
roots, such as ruta baga, mangel wurtrel, carrots, turnips, 
&c, to feed out during the winter. Combined with straw, 
it is considered an economical mode of wintering sheep. — 
Moreover, they enrich their land by this course of manage- 
ment, which enables them to keep still more sheep and cat- 
tle, and raise more grain. Many farmers in that couniry 
keep their sheep from nine to ten months of the year in the 
yard : some, only part of their flock, and others their whole 
flock. For this purpose, they sow red and white clover, 
lucerne, and esparette, which is mowed and fed to them in 
racks three times a day, and in weather, a foddering of 
straw. It follows, as a matter of course, that the stables 
are well littered wiih straw every day. It is considered 
that an acre thus managed, will maintain double the num- 
ber of sheep or cattle that it would to turn them out to pick 
for themselves. By this course of management, they are 
enabled to keep large numbers of sheep without infringing 
much on their grain growing, and are able to come in com- 
petition with the wool-growers of other countries. As there 
are no fences in that country, the sheep are attended by 
dogs. One shepherd, with his dog, will manage from five 
to eight hundred, in the summer, all in one fiock." 

From these statements, it is very evident that in Saxony, 
Merino sheep are subjected to great confinement in stalls 
and yards during winter, and in summer also, on many farms. 
-And though, upon the authority of Messrs. Youatt & Las- 
teyrie, Merinos are generally suffered to run out in yards 
some part of every day in winter, except when the weather 
is severe, and are occasionally led into fields of grass, or oth- 
er green food, to obtain some portion of their sustenance, 
when the ground is bare or has little snow upon it ; yet, as 
the snows in those northern climes are generally deep in 
the winter, it is very evident that Merinos cannot, in those 
countries, obtain that exercise which is natural to them, 
and which is necessary to form vigorous, healthy animals. 
Moreover, the climate of those northern countries is very 
moist in summer, compared with that of Spain or the Uni- 
ted States. Such a climate has a strong tendency to pro- 
duce too succulent grasses, and rot in consequence. From 
this cause it is estimated that in Great Britain at least one 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 



39 



million of the native sheep die annually from rot, on an av- 
erage, and in some seasons, more than twice that number. 
Hence, we may conclude, that though, the pure Escurial is 
a healthy breed in the dry climate of the United States, Mr. 
Carr's statement as to their morbid tendency in Saxony, 
though rather highly colored, is very nearly correct. 

Different modes of washing sheep before shearing are 
used in Saxony, but always with special care that the fleeces 
are thoroughly cleansed. 

The shearing is conducted in the most skilful manner, 
each shearer, generally, being limited as to the number of 
fleeces he is to clip per day, in order to ensure a greater 
degree of care in his work, and thus prevent their skins 
from being injured by the shears. 

" After the shearing season is over, the wool is bought of 
the small proprietors by agents of wool merchants, and 
transported to Hamburg, Breslau, and Leipsic, where it is 
sorted and re-sold for exportation. The large proprietors 
of pure flocks effect their sales by samples, subject to sort- 
ing, which t is an art well understood in Germany. The 
fleeces of the same quality are opened and spread flat 
against each other, when packed, and each bale is made to 
contain from 400 to 600 lbs. 

At the annual fairs of Leipsic, millions of pounds of wool 
are often sold in a single day ; and an immense amount of 
wool is exported from Germany. England receives annu- 
ally between twenty and thirty millions lbs., and France 
several millions. 

" Thus, the greatest care is taken in the management of 
their flocks in Saxony, and in the selection of the progeny 
intended for breeding, so as not only to preserve, but 
also to improve the quality of the wool : the improvement 
of the carcass is altogether a secondary matter, the fleece 
being the primary consideration. So successful have been 
these endeavors, that the wool of Saxony stands unrivalled 
for the manufacture of the finest cloths, 

" To such an extent have these improvements of the Es- 
curial breeds been carried in Saxony, that though superior 
rams are becoming more numerous every year, yet some 
distinguished rams have, within a few years past, been sold 
at from 100 to nearly 300 pounds sterling each."— (W. C. 
Spooner.) 



40 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

FRANCE. 

The indigenous breeds of France are varied as the face 
of the country, and have generally coarse and rather light 
fleeces. Formerly the sheep of Roussillon and Berry were 
most esteemed for their wool ; but for mutton, those of 
Brittany, though extremely small, were in the highest esti- 
mation. 

'•At the present time, probably none surpass, form and 
fleece combined, those of Aries, which embraces the dis- 
tricts of Crau, Camarque, and Le plain du Bourg. About 
250,000 sheep are kept in these districts. All these sheep 
are migratory, being driven from the plains of Aries, in the 
spring of the year, towards the Alps, which divide Prov- 
ence and Dauphine from Italy, and are driven back in No- 
vember. These migrations have continued from time im- 
memorial ; and laws have been enacted, limiting the road 
for their passage to 36 feet in breadth. The flocks vary in 
number from 10,000 to 40,000 ; and to every 1,000 sheep, 
three shepherds are allowed, each of whom has his dog. — 
The sheep are led by goats, which are trained for the pur- 
pose, and have bells round their necks. The discipline in 
which these animals are kept, and the intelligence which 
they display, is very great. They halt or proceed, at the 
direction of the shepherd. They come to the centre, at 
the close of each day's march, and there wait in the morn- 
ing for the proper order, when they repair to their station at 
the head of the troop, with the greatest regularity. If they 
come to a stream, the) 7, halt until the word of command is 
given; and then they plunge immediately into the water, 
and are followed by the rest of the flock. The journey 
usually lasts from twenty to thirty days. When they ar- 
rive at the mountains, each shepherd has his appointed 
boundary marked out ; and the proprietors of the land are 
usually paid about twenty sous per sheep for their pasture 
during the summer. The shepherds sleep with their flock 
in the open air, and live almost entirely upon bread and 
goat's milk." — (Annals of French Agriculture.) 

Spanish sheep were imported into France at an early 
period. But the first person who paid any systematic at- 
tention to the improvement of the wools of France, by 
means of Merino sheep and their crosses, was M. Dauben- 
ton, who, in 1776, obtained part of 200 Merinos, which 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 41 

were imported by Mons. Trudain, intendant of finances. 
In 1786, 376 Merino sheep were presented by the King 
of Spain to Louis XVI. Sixty of them died on their pas- 
sage to France. The remainder were placed at Ranbouil- 
let, in the neighborhood of Paris, where was an agricultur- 
al establishment expressly devoted to the improvement of 
domesticated animals. 

"This royal present having been chosen for their supe- 
rior form and fleece, from various Spanish flocks, differed 
much in size and shape; but these characteristic differen- 
ces have been melted into each other by crossing them, and 
a race has been produced which differs from any of the ori- 
ginal breeds, but is equal to the best of them in form and 
fineness of their wool, and superior in weight of carcass and 
fleece, and with less jar (or hair) than the original breeds." 

In order to perfect the undertaking, a publication was 
drawn up by 1 M. Gilbert, under the patronage of Govern- 
ment. A practical school for shepherds was instituted at 
Rambouillet, and two other depots were established — one 
at Pompadour, and another at Perpignau. 

Dr. Parry considers that the improvements in the Span- 
ish sheep at Rambouillet, have been accomplished in the 
four following ways: 

1st — By choosing, for breeding, the finest and best wool- 
ed rams and ewes. 

2d — By never allowing them to propagate till they have 
attained their full growth, which, at the earliest, is not till 
nearly three years of age. 

3d — By separating the weak from the strong. 

4th — By giving them good food, and plenty of air and 
exercise. 

A public sale of part of the flock is made at Rambouillet, 
in the month of May, annually. " At the sale of Merinos, 
in 1834, the average price of the rams was 328 francs, and 
the greatest sum given for the best, 510 francs. The aver- 
age price of the ewes had sunk to 108 francs, and the high- 
est price of the best was only 210 francs." — (Youatt.) 

This flock was visited by Mr. Trimmer, an English 
writer, in the year 1827. His remarks relative to them 
are, — " These sheep, in size, are certainly the largest pure 
Merinos I have ever seen. The wool is of various qualities, 
(the natural consequence of a mixture of breeds,) many sheep 



42 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 



carrying very fine fleeces, others middling, and some rather 
indifferent: but the whole is much improved from the ori- 
ginal Spanish Merinos. Individuals are found in this flock 
with dewlaps down to the knees, and folds of skin on the 
neck, like frills, covering nearly the head. Several of 
these animals possess pelts of such looseness and size, that 
one skin would nearly hold the carcasses of two such sheep. 
The rams' fleeces were stated at 14 lbs., and the ewes' flee- 
ces at 10 lbs. in the grease. By thorough cleansing, they 
would be reduced half, thus giving 7 and 5 lbs. each." 

N. B. The sheep which were brought to Rambouillet 
in 1736, from Spain, were selected from six different ca- 
vanas or breeds, viz : the Negretti, the Paular, and the Es- 
curial, and also from the cavanas of the Marquis de Iranda, 
of the Marquis de Perales, and of the Count de San Rafael. 
These different breeds differ very widely in size, form, and 
qualities of their wool ; and this mixture was made with 
very little regard to what are now well established princi- 
ples of breeding. 




THE SHEPHERD S PIPES. 



EUROPEAN SHEEP, 43 



SECTION V. 



ITALIAN AND SPANISH SHEEP. 

ITALY, 

" Once so renowned for its sheep, can now boast little of 
this production of her bounteous clime. The Roman, 
whose dress was woolen, cultivated, in an especial degree, 
the fineness of the fleece ; and it was not until the days of 
the Empire, that the silk and cotton of the East began to 
supersede the ancient raiment of the Roman people. 

The finest wools of ancient Italy were produced in Apu- 
lia and Calabria, being the Eastern parts of the present 
kingdom of Naples. Pliny informs us that the best wool 
was that of Apulia, on the Adriatic Sea : and the next best 
was further to the South, on the Gulf of Tarentum ; and 
the Milesian, or Asiatic sheep, carried the third prize ; and 
that, for whiteness, there was none better than that produ- 
ced on the Po. 

The care of the Romans in causing the wool to grow 
fine, exceeded, in the case of certain breeds, any thing that 
is now attempted. The sheep were kept in houses, and 
continually clothed, so that the filaments of the wool might 
become delicate ; the skin was smeared with fine oil, and 
moistened with wine ; the fleece was combed, so that the 
wool might not become matted, and the whole was washed 
several times in the year." — (W. C. Spooner.) 

They also improved their sheep, by obtaining from other 
countries the best kinds. " Strabo assures us that in his 
day, (in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius,) they gave 
more than one hundred and fifty pounds sterling (or about 
750 dollars,) for a ram of the breed of the Coraxi, a Pontic 
nation believed to have the finest fleece in the world." — 
(Blacklock.) - 

" The excessive care which the Romans took of their 
sheep, proved rather injurious to them, rendering them ten- 
der, and more disposed to disease. With the fall of the 
Empire, these choice breeds were neglected and lost. And 
though there are a few fine-wooled sheep in Italy, they are 
neglected, and badly formed. This is also the case with 
regard to Sicily, which was once celebrated for the fine- 



44 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

ness of its wool, and still retains some fine-wooled sheep, 
which migrate like those of Spain, but are inferior to them 
in the quality of their wool." 

In 1789, Arthur Young traveled through the northern 
parts of Italy, and found only very coarse-wooled sheep. 

In 1793, Prenn Maserino imported into Piedmont 150 
ewes from the best flocks of Segovia. So that, at the pres- 
ent time, we may suppose that the wools of some parts of 
Italy are, in some measure, improved. 

SPAIN. 

In Spain, there are two kinds of sheep, which differ wide- 
ly from each other, both of which have long existed in that 
country. Those called the Choaroes, are much longer, 
larger, and higher upon the legs, than the Merinos. Their 
heads are smaller, and deprived of wool : their wool is 
from five to eight inches long, and of inferior value. This 
race extends through all Spain, even into those provinces 
in which the Merino is most perfect, and is the favorite of 
the peasant and small proprietor. 

The other kind is the Merino, or fine-wooled sheep. The 
word Merino, in the Spanish language, is an adjective, and 
signifies wandering, roving about, and seems to be derived 
from the Spanish verb, menear, which signifies to wander, 
or rove about. 

Pure unmixed Merino sheep, are distinguished from the 
coarse-wooled breed, by their males having large spiral 
horns, while the females seldom have any : by their faces 
and noses being entirely free from black or smuuy spots : 
by their frequently having a large dewlap hanging from 
their throat : in having wool on their foreheads and cheeks, 
and frequently upon their legs to the hoof: their wool is 
fine and soft, and lengthwise assumes a spiral form, and 
generally contains much yolk. Their skins are of a 
fine carnation red : and they are not subject to an annual 
decidence of wool, like coarse-wooled sheep : their fleeces 
may be kept on for several years, if desired ; and their lon- 
gevity far exceeds that of any of the coarse-wooled breeds. 
There are, also, in Spain, several intermediate breeds, 
among which are the Pyrenean races, with remarkably 
fine wool, and somewhat resembling the South Downs of 
England. In general they are polled ; but some have horns 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 45 

which turn behind the ears, and in the males, project for- 
ward half a circle. Their legs are short, and are white 
or reddish. Their faces are speckled, and, on some kinds, 
a small tuft of wool grows upon their foreheads. Their 
color varies from white to a reddish color, and in some in- 
stances they are black. 

There is, also, a race of coarse- wooled breeds in Biscay, 
which have from four to six horns. 

The origin of the Merino breed, like that of most other 
kinds, is somewhat uncertain. Strabo, an ancient writer, 
who wrote in the first century, in speaking of the beautiful 
woolen cloths which were worn by the Romans, says that 
the wool was brought from Truditania, in Spain, which is 
a part of Spain bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, and 
is intersected by the Gaudalquiver river. 

Dr. Parry, in investigating this subject, states many facts 
which go to show that the present Merinos are derived 
from the ancient Tarentine sheep of Apulia, in Italy, and 
that they may have been translated from Italy into Spain, 
during the time in which the Romans possessed Spain. — 
They first obtained possession of the south part of Spain 201 
years before Christ, and continued masters of it 600 years : 
during which time, they fully established their language 
and customs in that country, and probably their best breeds 
of animals : even the hogs of Spain and Naples, and of the 
south rarts of France, are black, as in ancient times. Black 
is the color which Columeda approved as being the best for 
hogs. 

Varro, Columeda, Pliny, Martial, Palladius, Petronius, 
and Calpurnius Siculus agree in stating that the sheep 
which produced the finest wool in the Roman territories, 
were those of Apulia and Calabria. A pound avoirdupois 
of this wool is stated to have cost £1, Is. 7d. sterling, or 
about $4,80, United States currency. 

And even in those days, Spain was not without breeds, 
which were memorable for bearing fleeces naturally of dif- 
ferent tints. Columeda speaks of them as bearing blackish, 
or tawny-colored fleeces. Pliny, who lived somewhat after 
him," adds, that they were occasionally of a reddish or gold 
color. And Martial compares them with the golden, or red 
hair of women. 

Dr Parry observes, that the perfection of both the pres- 



46 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

ent Spanish Merino, and the ancient Italian race, seem to 
have consisted in certain qualities, which were common to 
both. "The favorite ewe of ancient Italy, was to have a 
large carcass, capacious belly, short legs: and the ram, a 
wide breast, shoulders, and buttocks, a long and deep body, 
and a broad and long tail. The fleece was to be thick, soft, 
and deep, especially about the neck and shoulders ; the 
ears and forehead of the ram were to be involved in wool ; 
and no individual, of either sex, was tolerated, of which the 
wool did not clothe the whole body. Also, it is a memora- 
ble circumstance, that the rams had horns, and the ewes 
had none : still, however, the polled rams were most pre- 
ferred. And now, at the present time, there is not, as far 
as he had ascertained, any short-wooled breeds of sheep in 
Europe, except the Merino, and those of Italy, of which 
the males have horns, and the ewes have none." 

He also mentions several customs in the management of 
sheep, in ancient Italy, which are still used in Spain : 

1. The sheep of Apulia and Calabria had their summer 
and winter quarters in the same manner as the Merinos of 
Spain now have. And Sicily, to this day, possesses a breed 
of fine-wooled sheep, which migrate like those of Spain ; 
but are inferior to them in the quality of their wool. 

2. It was the practice, in Italy, to give salt to their sheep, 
as to the Merinos in Spain. 

3. It is stated by Tebullus, that it was the custom tmong 
the Romans, to have their flocks led by goats. And the 
same custom prevails in Spain to this day. 

4. It was the practice, among the Romans, to kill off a 
considerable number of lambs, shortly after they were drop- 
ped, in the same manner as is done among the Spaniards 
of the present day; and from precisely the same motives, 
that as the wool was the valuable produce of the flock, each 
lamb might acquire more strength by having two nurses. 

5. Varro and Columeda state, that the Romans excluded 
rams, with spotted mouths or tongues, from breeding, in or- 
der to avoid variegated fleeces in their offspring. And Las- 
teyrie affirms that the same custom is adhered to by the 
modern Meriuo shepherds. 

6. The flocks of Italy were followed and guarded by dogs, 
as those of Spain are at this day ; and the qualities, uses, 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 47 

and treatment of these dogs are minutely described by Var- 
ro and Columeda. 

7. Flocks of sheep were penned with woven hurdles by 
the Romans, in the same manner as now used in Spain. — 
(Horace Epodes, ii— 45th.) 

8. The Merino Mayoral corresponds with the magister 
puoris of the Romans. This agreement of the ancient 
fine-wooled sheep of Italy and those of Spain, in so many 
important particulars of form, fleece, constitution, and gen- 
eral treatment, goes for to show that the Merino race was 
derived from Italy ; and if, at this time, it differs in any res- 
pect from the fine-wooled sheep of Italy, this difference 
may have been produced by a difference of soil and climate. 

Much has been said of the crosses which were made be- 
tween the African sheep, and the fine-wooled Tarentian 
sheep of Italy, by Marcus Columella, a Spaniard of 
distinction, who removed to Rome about 1800 years ago, 
and who, as also his nephew, L. J. M. Columella, made ag- 
griculture the study and business of their lives. And it has 
been conjectured that the Merino race may have been form- 
ed by these crosses. But the final result of these crosses is 
entirely unknown. 

Don Pedro IV, King of Spain in the 14th century, and 
also Cardinal Ximenes in the 16th century, imported con- 
siderable numbers of sheep from Africa, either for the pur- 
pose of improving the sheep of Spain by crossing, or to 
form flocks of a different kind. 

Barbary possesses sheep whose wool is glossy and fine : 
but it is straight, that is, it wants the spiral curve of the 
Merino. ■ And, therefore, it is not probable that the charac- 
ter of the Merino fleece was changed by those importations 
from Barbary. For there was one flock which was called 
the Muros or Moorish flock, which was purchased by the 
family of Acquierres from the Moors, at the time when they 
were expelled from Spain, which was A. D., 1610, and 
which flock they had doubtless long possessed. They had 
been in possession of the south part of Spain 900 years. — 
And this flock did not differ from other Merinos of Spain ; 
and if we make proper allowance for the pertinacity with 
which people of those countries adhere to ancient customs, 
this circumstance will be considered as strong evidence of. 
the great antiquity of the Merino sheep. 



48 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

The Moors of Spain were distinguished for their luxuri- 
ous customs, and a fine and expensive wardrobe was re- 
garded as an object of essential importance. Hence, in the 
13th century, Spain became renowned for her woolen 
manufactories j and Seville alone contained 16,000 looms. 
And the manufacture of the finest fabrics, an art scarcely 
known in the rest of Europe, was the source of much na- 
tional wealth, as large quantities were exported to various 
parts of Europe, as well as Africa. But after the expulsion of 
the Moors, by Ferdinand V, and Philip III, the 16,000 looms 
of Seville dwindled down to 60, these manufactures became 
nearly extinct, and their fine wools were mostly exported. 

The perpetuation of the Merino race of sheep in all its 
purity, amidst the convulsions which changed the political 
aspect of Spain from time to time, may be explained by the 
fact, that invading armies, in those times, fought to ob- 
tain possession of the country, and to enjoy its productions, 
and not to utterly destroy them. Moreover, flocks of sheep 
could be removed to mountains, distant from scenes of con- 
test, and thus be saved with less difficulty than most other 
property. 

In Spain, there are two classes of sheep : the estantes, 
or stationary sheep, the most of which are coarse-wooled ; 
and the transhumantes, or migratory flocks. 

But there are, (says Burgoanne,) both in Estramadura, 
and also in the neighborhood of Segovia, flocks which nev- 
er leave those districts, and whose wool is as beautiful as 
those which migrate. And the proprietors of these station- 
ary flocks have privileges which greatly resemble those of 
the Mesta. The stationary flocks of fine-wooled sheep are 
most numerous in the central parts of Spain, where the pas- 
tures are less apt to be scorched by the heat of summer, as 
in Segovia and the mountain ranges north of Madrid. 

The transhumantes flocks migrate annually from the 
southern to the northern parts of Spain, and back again. — 
These periodical journies are made necessary by the sever- 
ity of the drouth in Spanish Estramadura, and some other 
southern parts of Spain, which almost invariably parches 
the plains, from the close of April till near the first of Oc- 
tober, to such a degree as to almost entirely prevent the 
growth of pasture. — (W. Jarvis.) 

The rains commence falling about the autumnal equinox, 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 49 

and continue, with intermissions of a few days only, until 
the latter part of March. In a few weeks from their begin- 
ning, the plains assume a beautiful verdure, and so contin- 
ue till the approach of the dry season ; and during this 
time, the thermometer rarely falls below 40 degrees of 
Fahrenheit. Whilst the plains are thus parched up in sum- 
mer by drouth, on the mountains and hilly regions they 
have sufficient rains ; and thus, these numerous migratory 
flocks are supported the entire year on grass. 

Hence, doubtless the inhabitants of the south'of Spain 
were, from necessity, ever obliged to drive their flocks 
northward, in summer, from the plains into the mountains, 
where the pastures were fresh, in order to keep them alive. 
And anciently, such migrations were common, as they now 
are in Asia. Virgil says, in his Georgies, (Book III, 339th 
line,) " Why should I trace in song the shepherds of Ly- 
bia, and their cottages where scatteringly they dwell. Their 
flocks often graze both day and night; and for a whole 
month together, and repair into long deserts without any 
shelter ; so wide the plain extends. The African shepherd 
carries his all with him — his house, his household god, his 
Amyclsen dog and Cretan quiver." 

So that their present migrations are probably only the 
continuance of an ancient custom upon an enlarged scale. 
The flocks are doubtless driven farther north than in an- 
cient times. 

In process of time, these flocks fell into the hands of 
wealthy individuals, grandees of Spain, and religious com- 
munities, who obtained from the Crown of Spain, about the 
year 1450, the grant of large privileges, and were associa- 
ted into a company or corporation, called the Mesta, for the 
purpose of defending themselves in the enjoyment of these 
privileges. And they have used these privileges greatly to 
the injury of the stationary farmers, by engrossing the pas- 
tures of the Kingdom to a considerable extent, and also, by 
causing the cultivators to abandon some of their most fer- 
tile lands, and vexing them in the enjoyment of others. 

The soil of the districts where the sheep are pastured, 
both in Estramadura and in Castile, is, in general, dry and 
stony, and the grass is fine and short. — (Burgoanne.) So 
that as the temperature in which they are kept is very 
even, great perfection of wool is obtained. 



50 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

A considerable part of Estramadura, Castile, Leon, and 
the neighboring provinces, is appropriated to the mainte- 
nance of these flocks ; as are also broad green roads, lead- 
ing from one province to another. And these roads are, at 
least, two hundred and fifty feet wide. No person, not 
even a foot passenger, is suffered to travel upon these roads, 
while the sheep are in motion, unless he belongs to the 
flocks. And along these roads are extensive resting places, 
where the sheep are baited. 

All questions and difficulties between the shepherds and 
the occupants of the lands through which the roads pass, 
are decided by special courts, which perform a kind of cir- 
cuit, and sit at stated periods to hear and decide. 

The country in which the sheep are pastured , both in the 
northern and southern provinces, is set out into divisions, 
which are separated from each other by landmarks only, 
without any kind of fences. Each of these divisions is call- 
ed a Dehesa, and is of a size capable of maintaining about 
one thousand sheep. Each proprietor must possess as ma- 
ny of these dehesas, in each province, as will maintain his 
flock; and, of course, must have a greater number of deh- 
esas in the south, where the lambs are reared, and fewer in 
the north country, where the sheep arrive after the flock 
has been sheared and culled. 

A flock, in the aggregate, is called a Cavana. This is 
divided into as many subdivisions as there are thousands 
belonging to it. 

Before the French invasion of Spain, the number of 
transhumantes sheep, in Spain, were estimated at five mil- 
lions, and the number of shepherds at least twenty-five 
thousand. 

By the laws of the Mesta, each Cavana must be govern- 
ed by an officer called a mayor or major. He is the chief 
shepherd. The chief shepherd must be well skilled in ev- 
erything which relates to his business. He has absolute 
control over the shepherds and dogs of which he has charge. 
For each subdivision of a thousand sheep, five shepherds 
and four dogs are appointed. Some of these inferior shep- 
herds obtain the office of Rabadan, or Zagal. The duty of 
this officer is the general superintendence of the flock, and 
to prescribe and administer medicine to the sheep. At the 
time of traveling, and when the ewes are yeaning, one or . 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 51 

two extra shepherds are allowed to each thousand sheep. 

The salary of the chief shepherd does not exceed two 
hundred dollars a year, and a horse : that of the first under 
shepherd of a tribe of a thousand sheep, ten dollars a year : 
the second, seven : the third, five : the fourth, three : the 
fifth, (a boy,) two dollars a year. The ratio of each is, 
two pounds of bread a day, with the privilege of keeping a 
few goats in the flock for milk. They are also entitled to 
the skins and carcasses of the culled sheep and lambs : and 
each shepherd receives from the chief shepherd a "regali- 
ito " of three-fourths of a dollar in April, and the same in 
October. And it is remarkable that these shepherds seldom 
marry, or change their calling, to which they are strongly 
attached, and that the families to which they belong, reside 
entirely in Leon. They are allowed to spend one month 
with their families annually : at other times, they are en- 
tirely exposed to the weather, and sleep in miserable huts 
made of stakes and branches of trees, or often sleep " under 
the stars " only. They carry with them every thing rela- 
ting to their business — the skins of sheep, that serve for 
their beds ; a kettle, a leather bottle, a knapsack, a spoon, 
a lancet to bleed their sheep, a scissor, a hatchet, a knife, 
and bread and oil, or suet, on which they subsist, and a few 
drugs for their sheep. 

These articles, with the skins of sheep which die in mi- 
grating, are carried by a few beasts of burthen (asses or 
mules,) which accompany the flock. And these animals 
also carry the materials for forming the mighty folds (hur- 
dles) for the sheep when traveling. 

The dogs are generally black and white, of the size of a 
wolf, with a large head and thick neck, and are somewhat 
allied to the mastiff breed. They are allowed two pounds 
of bread a day, and as much milk and flesh as can be spa- 
red. The dogs assist to prevent the mingling of tribes, to 
keep each tribe upon its own dehesa, to guard stray sheep, 
and to guard against wolves, which frequently follow at a 
distance, and migrate with the flocks. 

In winter, the Merino flocks cover the plains of Estrama- 
dura, Andalusia, and other southern provinces of Spain. 

When first the sheep have arrived at their winter quar- 
ters, the first thing which the shepherds provide, are the 
pens, into which the sheep are to be gathered at night, in 



52 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

order to prevent their straying, and falling into the jaws Oi 
the wolves. These are made with stakes, called, in Eng- 
land, hurdling stakes, and with a net-work, which is made 
of a soft rushy shrub, called "Esparto," (Lygeum Spartum,) 
or Spanish brown. Mats, ropes, and baskets are made of it 
in the southern parts of France and Spain. And it was 
used by the ancient Romans for similar purposes. This 
net-work is made with meshes a foot in width, and of the 
thickness of a finger, and, in England, is called a hurdle, 
and in the Spanish language, " Rediles." When made, it 
is fastened around the stakes, which are placed in a circle, 
or other position, so as to form a pen. 

In December, the ewes bring forth their lambs. At this 
time the shepherds separate the barren ewes from those 
which are pregnant. As the lambs are dropped, they are 
led out with their dams to a more comfortable place — giv- 
ing to those which are dropped last, the best pastures, so 
that they may grow faster than the others, and be able to 
migrate northward with them at the same time. And the 
lambs are allowed to run with the ewes till they wean them- 
selves. 

Each proprietor keeps as many sheep as his land will 
support ; and, consequently, the sheep are generally rather 
low kept. And if all the lambs were reared, their lands 
would shortly be overstocked, as there is but little sale for 
these sheep, unless some neighboring cavana has been re- 
duced by mortality. Therefore, as soon as the lambs are 
dropped, the largest proportion of them, and those princi- 
pally males, are killed off; and each of those which is pre- 
served, is made to suck two or three ewes : the shepherds 
say that the wool of an ewe that brings up her lamb with- 
out assistance, is reduced in its value. And thus, much 
the largest proportion of each cavana consists of ewes. — 
The number of lambs slaughtered is sometimes so great, 
that they are sold to the neighboring villagers for less than 
half a franc each. Most of the skins are sent into Portugal, 
and thence find their way into England, where they are 
used for the manufacture of gloves. 

In the month of March, the shepherds perform four op- 
erations upon the lambs, about the same lime : they cut off 
their tails for the sake of cleanliness ; they brand them up- 
on the nose with a hot iron, making a permanent mark, to 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 53 

shew to what cavana they belong ; they saw off the tips of 
their horns, to prevent the rams from hurting one another, 
or the ewes ; and lastly, they castrate those lambs which 
are destined for docile bell-weathers to walk at the head of 
the flock. This is done by turning the testicles with the 
fingers twenty times round in the scrotum, twisting the 
spermatic cords, as a rope ; and the parts wither away with- 
out danger. 

When the herbage is wasted by the increasing heat of 
the sun, which generally happens in April, or the beginning 
of May, the flocks commence their journies to the moun- 
tains of Leon, Castile, Navarre, Arragon, Segovia, Burgos, 
and other elevated districts. At this time, the sheep be- 
come restless, and manifest a strong desire to be off; and 
frequently, a tribe will steal a march upon the shepherd, 
who finds them by following their usual route towards their 
summer pastures ; and there are numerous instances of sev- 
eral hundred sheep straying a hundred leagues, to the very 
pastures where they fed the preceding year. 

The sheep of the transhumantes flocks are composed of 
two great divisions — the Leonese, and the Syrians. Those 
which go to Leon and Castile, pass the Tagus, at Almarez, 
and direct their course towards Trecasas, Alfaro, and 
L'Epinar, where they are shorn before they proceed to their 
summer quarters. The Eastern, or Sorian division, pass 
the Tagus at Talavera, in their journey to Arragon and oth- 
er eastern provinces, and are shorn at their journey's end. 

Each tribe of 1000 sheep is led by six tame weathers, 
called «.* Mansos," which wear bells, and are obedient to the 
voices of the shepherds, who give them small pieces of 
bread occasionally, to encourage them along. The sheep 
feed freely in all the wilds and commons through which 
they pass, and often travel 15 or 20 miles a day, in order 
to get into the open wilds, where the shepherd walks slow- 
ly to let them feed and rest. But they generally travel two 
or three leagues a day, ever following the shepherd, and 
ever feeding, or with their heads towards the ground, until 
they arrive at their journey's end ; and make few stops, ex- 
cept to be sheared. 

Their whole journey is often more than four hundred 
miles, which cannot be traveled in much less than forty 
days. Each subdivision, or tribe, is attended by its own 



54 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

shepherds and dogs, and is conducted by the shepherds to 
precisely the same dehesa where it fed the preceding year. 
And this course is pursued, in order to prevent a variation 
in the wool. Each sheep is well acquainted with the situ- 
ation of the dehesa to which it belongs, and will, at the end 
of the journey, go straight to it without the guidance of the 
dogs. Here, the flocks graze all the day under the eye of 
the shepherds. When evening comes on, the sheep are 
collected together, and soon lie down to rest; and the 
shepherds and dogs lie on the ground around them. And 
this they do all the year, either in huts or " under the stars." 

The first thing which the shepherds do after the flocks 
reach their summer pastures, is to give them salt. Each 
owner allows about two and a half pounds to each sheep 
yearly, which is consumed by them in about five months, 
while they are among the mountains at the north. No 
salt is given to them on their journeys, nor at their winter 
quarters; for it is a prevailing opinion that it produces abor- 
tion, when given to ewes which are forward with young. — 
The shepherd places a quantity of fiat stones about five pa- 
ces apart, and puts salt on these stones ior them. When 
the sheep are feeding on lime-stone soils, no salt is given to 
them. 

They have found, by experience, in Spain, that water, 
which is made cold by the melting of hail in summer, is in- 
jurious to man or beast, and carefully keep their sheep from 
drinking such water. 

On the last of July, the shepherds put four or five rams 
with each hundred ewes. After the ewes are tupped, the 
shepherds collect the rams into a flock by themselves again. 

Towards the end of September, the shepherds perform 
the operation of smearing the sheep with a heavy irony 
earth, which is common in Spain. It is first mixed with 
water, and then is smeared upon their backs, from the neck 
to the rump. This earth is probably used instead of tar, to 
shed the winter rains from their backs. After this opera- 
tion is performed, the sheep are led back to the southern 
provinces of Spain, in the same order in which they came. 

The season for sheep-shearing is a time of great festivit}' 
and rejoicing, both to the proprietor and the workmen. At, 
this time, the shepherds, shearers, and a multitude of un- 
necessary attendants, are fed upon the flesh of the culled 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 55 

sheep. And it seems that the whole of the sheep that are 
slaughtered or culled, are consumed in this manner. But, 
in settling the wages of the shearers and washers at the Es- 
quileos, allowance is made for the mutton with which they 
are fed. 

A hundred and twenty-five workmen are necessary to ev- 
ery thousand sheep ; and these workmen, including shear- 
ers, &c, are divided into classes, each of which has its dis- 
tinct employment. 

The operation of shearing commences about the first of 
May, and is performed in large buildings called "Esquileos," 
which are built in the form of a parallelogram, four or five 
hundred feet long, and one hundred feet wide. As many 
sheep as can be sheared the following day, are driven at 
evening into a long narrow passage called a " sudadeo," or 
sweating place, in order, as the shepherds say, to soften the 
wool, and make it cut easy ; but, in reality, this is done to 
increase the weight of the fleeces. For the fleeces, when 
shorn, ore put immediately into a damp warehouse, all the 
doors and windows of which are closely shut, so as not to 
admit the transmission of any vapor till the merchant 
comes to weigh the fleeces. The Spanish flocks occasion- 
ally suffer much from shearing ; and that of the Count del 
Campo Alange is reported to have lost five or six thousand 
in a single night. — (Dr. Parry.) 

This is a barbarous practice : it injures the sheep while 
they are in the " sudadeo," and exposes them to take cold 
after they are shorn. 

The shearers shear from 12 to 15 daily, or about two- 
ihirds as many as are ordinarily shorn in the United States. 
And if any are wounded by the shears, the shearers drop a 
little powdered charcoal on the wound, to keep off the fly 
and make it heal. 

As fast as they are sheared, the shepherds cull out, for 
the butchery, all the sheep which have lost their teeth, and 
on the others, they brand a tar-mark, which usually con- 
sists of the first letter of the name of the proprietor : and 
this tar-mark they place upon different parts of the body, 
so as to show to which dehesa each sheep belongs. After 
the sheep are shorn, they are taken daily to their pastures 
to feed, and at night are returned to the yard in front of the 
shearing house, and if the weather be cold or cloudy, are 



56 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 



housed at night ; so that, by degrees, they recover from the 
effects of being sweated, and are able to bear the weather : 
after which, their first day's journey towards the mountains 
is short. 

As the sheep are sheared without washing, it is computed 
that three rams' fleeces will weigh, in the yolk, twenty-five 
pounds: and that, on an average, three rams' fleeces are 
equivalent to those of four wethers or five ewes. Hence, 
to some persons, rams may be the most profitable stock. 

The wool, after shearing, is packed up and placed in 
the warehouses ready for sale ; or is taken to the scouring 
places, where it is given to the " Apartadores," or sorters, 
whose business it is to divide it into parcels of four differ- 
ent qualities, as denoted by the annexed diagram. 




That which is taken from the back, sides of the body, 
and sides of the neck, is considered of the first quality : 
that from the breast, belly, sides of the haunches, and from 
the back of the neck, the second quality : that from the 
cheeks and throat, the fore legs above the knees, the hams, 
and back part of the haunches, the third quality: that which is 
taken from the forehead, from the tail and legs below the 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 57 

knees, is of the fourth quality, and was formerly sold to buy 
masses for souls in purgatory. 

The other sorts, having different value, are sold accord- 
ingly, or, in some provinces, it is customary to sell the 
whole pile together at a mean price. 

When the wool is sorted, it is spread upon wooden hur- 
dles, and beaten with rods, in order to deprive it of the 
loose dirt. 

In selecting a situation for a scouring place, a valley 
open to the sun is preferred, through which runs a stream 
of pure water, and where there are inclined meadows large 
enough for drying the wool. The apparatus for scouring, 
consists of one or more copper cauldrons set in an arch, and 
provided with appropriate cocks, pipes, gutturs, &c, for 
conducting the hot water into the square pits or wells, (one 
for each sort of wool,) lined with masonry about three feet 
deep. These pits are then filled about half full of wool. — 
The water is heated to a temperature of from 120 deg. to 
140 deg. of Fahrenheit's thermometer, or even hotter, if 
necessary : the finer the quality of the wool, and the dirtier 
it is, the hotter must be the water. The wool is then stir- 
red with a fork for five or six minutes. It is then taken out 
and spread on wooden hurdles, which are a yard or more 
in width, and which are placed near the pits, so that the 
filth may be drained off, before the wool is rinsed in cold 
water. By the side of the hurdles is a narrow aqueduct 
formed of stone or masonry, through which flows a current 
of cold water, into which the wool is next thrown. It is 
received at the head of the aqueduct, and is carried along 
its length by the force of the current, being rubbed, in its 
passage, by the feet of one set of men, until it is at last 
thrown out by another set upon an inclined plain formed of 
masonry or stone, where it is left to drain. At the lower 
end of the aqueduct, is placed a small net for catching such 
locks of wool as may accidently escape from those whose 
business it is to throw the wool out of the aqueduct. 

As soon as the wool is well drained, it is spread upon the 
grass, and in the course of four or five days, is generally 
dry enough to be packed. It is usually put up in canvass 
bags of various sizes, on each of which are marked an ini- 
tial letter indicating its qualities, and other letters or marks, 
denoting the cavana and dehesa from which the wool is 



53 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

shorn ; so that the inexperienced wool-buyer may judge, at 
first sight, as to the quality of the wool. 

It is a well established fact that, if wool remains in the 
yolk for a period of six months or a year, and then be 
scoured, it will yield a greater weight of wool than if wash- 
ed when newly shorn ; but the articles made from it are 
more loose, and less uniform in their texture, and are weak- 
er and less durable, than those which are made from wool 
which is washed soon after being shorn. 

In the ordinary process of scouring in Spain, there is left 
of yolk in the wool, from 4 to 7 per cent, of the weight of 
the wool as packed. 

According to Vauquelin a, French chemist, if wool be 
kept a long time in its yolk, the yolk will cause the fibre of 
the wool to swell and split, and lose its strength. But in 
America, where wool is washed upon the sheeps' backs, no 
complaints have been made by wool-holders of damages 
sustained in consequence of the yolk contained in it. 

The first quality of wool is marked E,., for Refina, or su- 
perfine ; the second, F., Fina,,or fine; the third, T., Ter- 
cera, or coarse ; and the fourth, C. or K., Cayda, or refuse. 

A set of bags containing the whole of the three first sorts, 
is called a pile ; the proportion of which, many years ago, 
was R., 15 parts, F., 4, and T„ 1 part. 

According to the laws of the mesta, the care and manage- 
ment of the sheep is confided entirely to the shepherds, 
without admitting any interference on the part of the pro- 
prietor; and no profit of the flock comes to the proprietor, 
except what is derived from the wool. The carcasses of 
the culled sheep are consumed by the shepherds and their 
assistants ; and it does not appear that any account, is ren- 
dered by them, to their employers, of the value of the skins 
and taliow. So little are Merino sheep considered an 
article of food for the large towns of Spain, that though im- 
mense flocks of them pass through or near Madrid twice 
every year, the mutton of that capital was formerly supplied 
from Africa, as their beef and pork were from the neat cat- 
tle and pigs of France. 

The profit derived by a proprietor from a flock, is esti- 
mated, on an average, at about twenty-two cents a head per 
annum ; and the capital vested in a flock is said to fluctuate 
between five and ten per cent. 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 59 

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF MERINOS. 

Mr. Livingstones remarks upon this head are as follows : 
" The Merinos of Spain differ widely from each other in 
beauty of form, and fineness of wool. Those of Soria are 
very small, with very fine wool. Those of Valentia, 
which, like the last, do not travel, have fine wool, but of ve- 
ry short staple. Castile and Leon have the largest, with 
the finest coats. Those most noted, are the sheep of the 
Escurial, of Guadaloupe, Paular, of the Duke D'Enfantado, 
Montarco, and of the Negretti. The first, for fineness of 
wool, is the most perfect of all the traveling flocks of Spain : 
the second, (Guadaloupe,) for form, fineness, and abun- 
dance of the fleece : the third, (Paular,) with similar fleeces, 
are longer bodied. The lambs of this stock, and that of the 
Duke D'Enfantado, are commonly dropped with a thick 
covering, which changes into very fine wool. The Negretti 
are the largest breed in Spain." 

The following description of some of these breeds, ex- 
tracted, in part, from the writings of Mr. William Jarvis 
and others, will more fully exhibit their qualities. 

The Paular s " were undoubtedly one of the handsom- 
est flocks in Spain. They are of a middling height, round 
bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the necks of the 
bucks rising, in a moderate curve, from the withers to the 
sitting on of the head ; their heads handsome, with an aqui- 
line curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the 
face, and generally, hair on the legs; the skin pretty 
smooth — that is, not rolling up, or doubling about the neck 
and body, as in some other flocks; the crimp on the wool 
was not so short as in some other flocks ; the wool was 
somewhat longer, but it was close and compact, and was 
soft and silky to the touch ; and the surface was not so 
much covered with yolk, as in some other breeds." 

The yolk of this breed is white, and their lambs, when 
first dropped, have a covering of coarse wool. This ca- 
vana was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of the 
Paular monastery. This monastery is situated in a charm- 
ing valley, 11 miles south-east of Segovia. '• These friars 
were some of the best agriculturists in Spain. This flock 
was sold by them to Don Manuel .Godoy, Prince of Peace, 
when he came into power. A part of this flock, and all 
which now remains of this flock, in Spain, is owned by Don 



60 EUROPEAN SHEEP. 

Jose Alvarez, whose residence is near Frugillo. This per- 
son was the Administrator of the Prince of Peace, and had 
the exclusive management of his flock. On the confiscation 
of the property of the Prince of Peace, a portion of the 
sheep fell into the hands of Alvarez." — (A. Agriculturist.) 

This cavana formerly consisted of 36,000 sheep. 

The Negretti " were the tallest Merinos in Spain, but 
not handsomely formed, being rather fiat-sided, roach-back- 
ed, and the neck inclining to sink down on the withers ; 
the wool was somewhat shorter than the Paular, and more 
crimped; the skin was more loose, and inclined to double, 
and many of them were wooled on their faces and legs, 
down to their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had large 
dewlaps." The yolk of the Negretti is white, and their 
lambs, when first dropped, have a covering of smooth curly 
wool. 

" The cavana of the Negretti was considered to be the 
finest in Spain, with respect to the strength of the flock, and 
the weight of their fleeces." — (Burgoanne.) They are re 
markable for the even fineness of their wool ; the wool up 
on their bellies and thighs being nearly as fine as that upon 
their backs. The National flock of France, at Rambouillet 
has in it a large proportion of the Negretti blood. This ca 
vana formerly belonged to the society of Jesuits in Spain 
and afterwards to the Conde del Campo Alange, and consist 
ed of 60,000 sheep. 

The Muros, or Acqueirres " sheep were short-legged 
round, broad-bodied, with loose skins, and were more wool 
ed about their faces and legs, than any other flock I ever 
saw : the wool more crimped than the Paular, and less than 
the Negretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly 
belonged to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion, was 
bought by the family of the Acqueirres, but in 1809, was 
owned by the Conde del Campo Alange. The wool, in 
England, was known as the Muros flock, and was highly 
esteemed." 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 



61 




ESCURIAL BREED. 



" The Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but 
not quite so round and broad, being, in general, rather more 
slight in their make : their wool was crimped, but not quite 
so thick as the Paular or Negretti ; nor were their skins so 
loose as the Negretti and Acqueirres, nor had they so much 
wool on their faces and legs." The yolk of this breed is or- 
ange-colored, and their lambs, when first dropped, have a 
coal of coarse wool. This cavana consisted of 50,000 
sheep, and had formerly belonged to the Crown of Spain : 
but when Philip II built the Escurial Palace, he gave them 
to the friars, whom he placed in the convent that was at- 
tached to the palace, as a source of revenue. The Escurial 
Palace is 12 miles north-west of Madrid. For a more par- 
ticular description of this breed, see Saxon Sheep. 

The Montarcos " were owned by the Conde d Montar- 
co. They bore a considerable resemblance to the Escu- 
rials " ; but their yolk is more abundant, and more adhe- 
sive ; it is of a light bluish pearl color, and their lambs, 
when first dropped, are covered with a thick, coarse wool, 
resembling hair. 



62 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 




GUADALOTJPE BREED. 



" The Guadaloupe flock is rather larger in the bono 
than the Escurial and Montarco breeds, about the same 
height, but not quite so handsomely formed ; their wool 
was thick and crimped, their skins loose and doubling, their 
faces and legs not materially different from the Escurial 
and Montarcos, but, in general, they were more gummed 
than either of the other (five) flocks." " The Escurials, 
the Montarcos, and the Guadaloupes, were not, in general, 
so heavy-horned as the other three flocks, and about one 
in six of the bucks were without horns." 

" In point of fineness, there was very little difference be- 
tween these six flocks : and as I have been told by well in- 
formed persons, there is very little difference in this respect 
among the Leonesa Transhumantes in general." — (W. Jar- 
vis.) 

M. Lasteyrie says : " The Gaudaloupe have the most 
perfect form, and are likewise celebrated for the quantity 
and quality of their wool. The Paulars have much wool 



EUROPEAN SHEEP. 63 

of a fine quality ; but they have a more evident enlarge- 
ment behind the ears, and a greater degree of throatiness." 
The Guadaloupe is a large breed of Merinos. Their 
yolk is white, and their lambs, when first dropped, have a 
coat of coarse wool, resembling hair. 



SECTION VI. 

IRISH SHEEP. ' 

" The sheep of Ireland, like those of England, are of 
two distinct kinds — those of the mountains, and those of 
the vallies. The vale sheep are large, long-wooled ani- 
mals, resembling those which existed in the midland coun- 
ties of England, before the extensive improvements by 
means of the Dishley breed, were effected. A large share 
of these long-wooled sheep have been improved by crosses 
with the Dishley breed, so as to be nearly or quite equal to 
them in every respect." 

" There are, in Ireland, several breeds of mountain 
sheep, the principal of which are, the Wicklow and Kerry. " 

" The Wicklow, the more valuable of the two, though 
less numerous, are mostly confined to the Wicklow moun- 
tains, on the east coast of Ireland, an elevated locality, but 
possessing a humid atmosphere. These sheep resemble, 
in many respects, those of the Welsh mountains. They 
are little wild animals, without horns, and with white faces 
and legs, though there is a tendency to become black, 
which is shown by the number of black lambs which are 
dropped. 

" They are larger towards the base of the mountain, 
where the pasturage is better, and the wool is tolerably 
fine and rather long, though mixed with hair. Towards the 
summit of the mountain, the ground being boggy, and the 
pasturage scanty, the sheep are smaller, the wool is coarser, 
and more mixed with hair, which appears in ridges along 
the spine and back, which thus causes the rain to shoot off 
their backs. And this provision against the evils of their 



64 EUROPEAN SHEEP, 

locality, is still further secured by the lambs having a sort 
of hairy covering on those parts which come in contact 
with the damp ground." 

" Their fleeces weigh from two to three pounds, and the 
fibre is about two inches in length." 

" The proximity of Dublin occasions a great demand for 
early lambs, and these sheep are made available for this 
purpose, to a great extent. The mountain sheep are pur- 
chased by the farmers of better and lower situations, and 
the rams being put to the ewes in June, the lambs are drop- 
ped in November and December. They are generally 
brought up in pens, being separated from the dams in the 
coarse of a fortnight, and are forced by suckling those ewes 
whose lambs have died or have been killed, as well as their 
own dams. To this is added cow's milk, so that they are 
fit for market in the course of six weeks. 

" The disposition to take the ram so early, the quality of 
the mutton, and the fact of the ewes being good nurses, 
stamp intrinsic value on this breed. They are preserved 
pure only in few places." 

" The Kerry Breed may be regarded as the type of the 
various mountain breeds which are found principally in the 
west of Ireland. Somewhat larger than the sheep of the 
"Wicklow and Welsh mountains, they are, nevertheless, a 
hardy, though an unthrifty race, feeding slowly, and arri- 
ving slowly at maturity. Their fat, when accumulated, is 
found on the inside, and they never exhibit externally any 
rotundity of shape. They have coarse hairy wool on the 
back and haunches, but it is soft and fine on the ribs. They 
have small, crooked horns, which are sometimes wanting 
in the female. Their habits restless and active, they re- 
semble, in their general appearance, the antelope races. — 
They pick up their subsistence amidst the bogs and peats, 
occasionally stealing provender from the neighboring farms. 
The only good quality which they possess, is the excel- 
lence of their mutton."— [W. C. Spooner.] 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



SECTION VII. 



THE SHORT-TAILED SHEEP. 

" The short-tailed sheep are little wild animals, located 
in the Orkney, Shetland, and Hebrides Islands, where they 
probably came from the coast of Norway. 

" Somewhat similar to the goat in their appearance, they 
resemble this animal in their habits, their activity, their 
hardihood, and their partiality for mountainous regions. — 
Their fleece consists of wool and hair : the former not in- 
creasing in length from year to year, as in some other sheep 
if not sheared, but coming off as the summer approaches, 
leaving the hair alone at this period of the year. The 
fleece, therefore, is not sheared; the wool is plucked with 
the hand, and then readily separated from the hair."-— 
Their wool is very fine; and their fleeces seldom exceeds 
two pounds in weight. 

The purest breeds are found in Zetland ; those of Ork- 
ney being more frequently mixed with the Dutch, by which 
admixture it is rendered less fine. 

" The pure breeds are of various colors, black, brown, 
grey, and white, and often spotted : both sexes have horns, 
but more frequently they are absent in the female. The 
horns are short and upright, resembling the goat. 

" Exposed to every vicissitude of the weather, which, in 
these remote and sterile Islands, is of the most rigorous 
kind, neglected by their owners, deriving their subsistence 
from the heaths, the marine plants, or what little vegeta- 
tion can be obtained in these barren spots, their size is 
stunted, and the wethers, when fat, do not exceed six or 
seven pounds to the quarter. They exceed, perhaps, all 
other kinds in their power of enduring the rigor of the 
weather, and scantiness of food. They will even subsist on 
animal food ; and dried salt fish is their common food, when 
nothing else can be obtained. These little animals are ren- 
dered wilder by the neglect of their owners, and vast num- 
bers of them are thereby lost. When a sheep is wanted, it 
is common to hunt it down with dogs, for which animal 
they therefore have a great dread. The rams are pugna- 
cious, and will often attack and destroy the ewes : so that, 



66 BRITISH SHEEP. 

all circumstances combined, little profit comes to the own- 
er."— (W. C. Spooner.) 

The reader will bear in mind that this breed of sheep has 
been neglected and suffered to run wild in the manner 
above mentioned, for centuries, and yet they do not change 
into an Argali or Musmon ; a very convincing circumstance 
to show that the sheep has ever been a species distinct 
from the Argali or Musmon. 



SECTION VIII. 

BRITISH SHEEP. 
WELSH SHEEP. 

" In the vallies and fertile pastures of Wales, there are 
found many of the improved breeds of English sheep, the 
Leicester and South Down. But the mountains of this 
principality possess two distinct varieties, which are natu- 
ralized to the soil. Professor Low distinguishes one kind 
as the Sheep of the higher Mountains, and the other as the 
soft-ivooled Sheep. 11 

The Sheep of the higher Mountains are very small, sel- 
dom exceeding five pounds to the quarter, with -horns in 
both sexes resembling the goat, whose habits it otherwise 
resembles. The tail is of the usual length of British sheep ; 
and there is a ridge of hair on the back, throat, and dew- 
lap : the fleece is of various colors, black, brown, and 
grey. These sheep are extremely wild and active, and 
prefer the highest spots, and the aromatic plants there 
found, to the richer herbage. 

Like the sheep of Orkney and Zetland, the rams often 
attack the ewes when in lamb, and thereby diminish their 
number, as if for the purpose of repressing their too great 
increase. They have black hair on the face and legs, a 
character which attaches itself even in their improved state, 
as in the Radnor, a superior variety of the same race, en- 
larged by better pasturage. The Radnor sheep fatten to 8 
9 pounds the quarter. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 67 

The soft-wool ed Sheep may be considered as the distinc- 
tive breed of Wales, and is distinguished from others by 
the whiteness of the nose, as well as of the fleece. The 
fabric known as Welsh flannel, is made of the wool of this 
breed, and the flesh is still more celebrated, under the well 
known term of Welsh mutton. 

" These sheep are small, seldom exceeding 6 pounds to 
the quarter, when fat. They are spread throughout the 
whole of Wales, but delight in lofty situations. Like all 
mountain breeds, their habits are extremely active, and 
when enclosed, few fences can confine them : even when 
removed to distant spots, they will not unfrequently escape, 
and regain their native mountains." 

Their form corresponds to their habits, being slender 
throughout, and their hind quarters long like those of the 
deer. The males have their horns curved backward, but 
the females do not possess any. They have a mixture of 
fyair, though less than other mountain breeds ; and this is 
particularly noticeable on the throat, where it appears like 
a beard. The fleece weighs between one and two pounds, 
and partakes of the long-wool character, and is well adapted 
for flannels and hose, but not for cloths. 



SECTION IX. 

THE FOREST BREEDS. 

The Exmoor and the Dartmoor are the principal forest 
breeds in the west of England. Dartmoor is situated in the 
west part of Devonshire, and is about twenty miles long, 
north and south, and from five to fifteen miles broad. It is 
situated in the higher parts of the country. The Dartmoor 
sheep are a hardy race, adapted to the poverty of the pas- 
ture which the forest of Dartmoor affords. The Dartmoor 
sheep are very small, having soft wool, and white faces and 
legs : they thrive slowly, averaging, when fat, about ten 
pounds to the quarter. Though bred on heath, they are 
fattened on plains, and their mutton is highly praised fo. 
its excellence, and commands a ready sale both in the 



68 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



neighboring and distant markets. They are wild and rest- 
less, and apt to break their pastures, when removed to the 
more enclosed country. 

" The forest of Exmoor is situated in the west part of the 
county of Somerset. The sheep of this forest are smaller 
than those of Dartmoor, and the males have a beard under 
the chin, somewhat like goats, and much resemble these 
animals in their activity and boldness. In other respects, 
they resemble the Dartmoor. Both breeds take the ram 
earlj r , and when the ewes are put to the Leicester ram, the 
lambs grow rapidly to a large size." 



SECTION X. 
MOUNTAIN BREEDS 




BLACK-FACED HEATH SHEEP. 

" This is a peculiar breed, inhabiting the lofty, but barren 
and heathy hills, which extend from Derbyshire, on the 
south, to the confines of Scotland, through the counties of 
Cumberland, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Yorkshire.— 






BRITISH SHEEP. 69 

These tracts of country are much exposed to winds on ei- 
ther side, and this circumstance, with the poverty of the 
soil, permits only a hardy race of animals to thrive. 

*' Though this is the native locality of the breed, it has, 
however, considerably extended itself through the high- 
lands and mountains of Scotland, penetrating even to the 
Orkney and Shetland isles." — (W. C. Spooner.) 

" The male and the female have horns very large and 
spirally twisted in the male, but sometimes disappearing in 
the female. The limbs are lengthy and muscular, and the 
general form is robust : The face and legs are black, or, 
at least, mottled : the eye is wild and fierce : They are 
covered with wool about the forehead and lower jaw : the 
wool is somewhat open, coarse and shaggy, and is much 
mixed with hard, wiry filaments, called kemps : it is of 
medium length, and weighs about three pounds to the fleece, 
when washed, and is fit only for the manufacture of carpets 
and coarser stuffs. 

" The ordinary weight of this breed, when fattened at 
four years old, is fifteen pounds to the quarter, but some- 
times rises to twenty pounds. 

tg The mutton of this breed is not so delicate as the South 
Down, or the Welsh sheep ; but is more juicy, has more of 
the venison flavor, and is preferred to every other, by those 
who are used to it." 

In consequence of greater attention to choice selections 
of individuals for breeding, the form has changed, within a 
few years, for the better: the carcass has become so short, 
round, and handsome, as to acquire the name of short sheep, 
in contradistinction to the Cheviot, or long sheep. The 
black-faced sheep is one of the hardiest breeds, and the 
ewes are good nurses: They feed -on the loftiest moun- 
tains, up to the verge, where the heaths give place to the 
rnusca, and other plants of higher latitudes, and are capable 
of subsisting on the coarsest heaths. A little coarse hay i$ 
the only additional food they receive, and this is supplied 
in sparing quantities, where the frost or snow precludes the 
possibility of getting any grass. One shepherd has usually 
about five hundred ewes under his care; and the lambs are 
weaned when about three months old. The flocks are 
sheared in July, and a few days previously, are made to 



70 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



swim across a stream, which is all the washing they re- 
ceive. 

The practice of smearing the sheep in November, with 
tar and butter, boiled together in the proportion of 8 lbs. of 
tar to 6 of butter, is generally pursued, and the benefits are 
considered to outweigh the loss in the quality of the wool. 

These sheep are wild and independent in their habits, 
but they are not so restless as the mountain sheep of Wales 
and other parts, and can be induced to remain in enclosures, 
when sufficient food is provided for them. — (W. C. Spoon- 
er.) 




THE CHEVIOT SHEE?. 

The Cheviot hills are a part of that extensive and eleva- 
ted range which extends from Galloway, in Scotland, 
through Northumberland, into Cumberland and Westmore- 
land, occupying a space of 150 or 200 square miles. The 
majority of them are pointed, like cones : their sides are 
smooth and steep, and their bases are nearly in contact with 
each other. These mountains reach to 2658 feet above the 
level of the sea, and are thus exposed to the severe effects 
of the weather, and remain covered with snow, long afier- 
it has disappeared from the cultivated plains below." The 
soil, except on the very top, is fertile : the pasturage 



BRITISH SHEEP. 71 

abounds with fern and wild thyme, as well as grasses ; but 
differs from that of the native Heath breed, which abounds 
in Heath, the shoots of which furnish a considerable por- 
tion of their subsistence during winter. 

" On the upper part of that hill in Northumberland, which 
is properly termed the Cheviot; a peculiar and most valua- 
ble breed of sheep is found. They have been there from 
time immemorial. Tradition says that they came from the 
borders of Scotland. But they are totally different from the 
black-faced sheep, and bear no resemblance to the original 
dun-faced Scottish sheep. How two breeds, so totally dif- 
ferent from each other, came to inhabit the neighboring dis- 
tricts of Ettrick forest, and the Cheviot Hills, neither his- 
tory nor tradition has attempted to explain." — (Farmer's 
Magazine.) 

" This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the 
mountains of Scotland, and also into Wales and the west 
of England, and in many instances has supplanted the 
black-faced breed. They are a hardy race, well suited to 
their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, 
the storms of winter, and thriving on poor keep, and may 
justly be considered as the best mountain breed existing in 
this country, (Britain). Every mixture of stranger blood 
has been found to lessen that hardihood, which is the dis- 
tinguishing character of the race. Though less hardy than 
the black-faced Heath sheep, they are more profitable as 
respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quan- 
tity of food, and making it quicker." 

They are described by Mr. Youatt as follows': " They are 
hornless; the face and legs generally white ; the eye lively 
and prominent; the countenance open and pleasing ; the 
ear large ; the body long, and hence they are called long 
sheep, in distinction from the black-faced breed; they are 
full behind the shoulder, a long straight back, round in the 
rib, and well proportioned in the hind quarters : the legs 
clean and small boned, and the pelt thin, but thickly cover- 
ed with a short, fine wool, which extends over the whole 
body and legs." 

44 The fleece averages about three and a half pounds. — 
Formerly the wool was extensively employed for making 
cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, 
it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purp<a« 



72 BRITISH SHEEP. 

ses. The wool of this breed is not quite so fine as that of 
the South Down, and is a secondary consideration : mutton 
being the primary object for which they are reared. — 
Where the herbage is short and sweet, their wool is finer 
than in coarse and Heathy pastures." 

The Cheviot breed has good fattening properties: the 
Cheviot wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and 
averages from 12 to 18 lbs. per quarter : the mutton being 
of a good quality, though inferior to the South Down, and 
of less flavor than the black-faced Heath breed. 

The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and do- 
cile, and easily managed. The food of the Cheviot sheep 
consists, throughout the greater part of the year, of the 
herbage of their native hills; hay being allowed only when 
the ground is covered with snow, or bound with frost. Oc- 
casionally turnips are supplied ; but it is rarely that the 
farm will admit of their production, the breeding farms be* 
ing for the most part in lofty situations. 

M The period of lambing is necessarily late, in order that 
there should be a good supply of food : It therefore does 
not commence till April — the. rams having been admitted 
in November, at the rate of one to fifty ewes. During the 
lambing season, greater attention is paid, and the best food 
is supplied. Though twins are frequently produced, it is 
rarely that the number of lambs reared equals the number 
of ewes. 

The Cheviot sheep are washed and sheared between the 
middle of June and first of July. As soon as each sheep is 
shorn, it is usually branded with tar or pitch on different 
parts of the body, so that the different kinds and ages of 
the sheep may be known at a glance. Soon after shearing, 
the lambs are weaned by a short separation of them from 
their dams. Smearing is less generally practised than with 
the Heath breeds, and less than formerly, in consequence 
of the injury inflicted on the wool by the tar. Spirits of tar 
and turpentine, or rosin, are sometimes substituted for the 
tar. 

" Vast numbers of these sheep have sometimes been 
overwhelmed by the snow storms which, in those lofty, ex- 
posed situations, descend with merciless severity. Many ■ 
years ago, as tradition reports, in one winter alone, nine- 
tenths of the Cheviot sheep were entirely destroyed by the 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



73 



storms. A graphic and interesting description is related by 
Mr. Hogg, the celebrated Ettrick Shepherd, of the snow 
storm of 1794, in which seventeen shepherds lost their 
lives, and sheep were destroyed by thousands : one thous- 
and eight hundred bodies being found on the beds of the 
Esk alone, after the flood. The difficulties encountered 
and surmounted by our celebrated shepherd, are described 
with the greatest interest, and the disastrous effects of such 
storms are strikingly portrayed ; and though they occur but 
seldom, yet the losses are often very severe from ordinary 
bad seasons, and point out the necessity of additional shel- 
ter."— (W. C. Spooner.) 



SECTION XI. 

UPLAND BREEDS 



THE SOUTH DOWN. 




SOUTH DO WIS RAM. 

In the Saxon language, the word dun signifies a hill, and 
from this word is derived the English word down. " The 
South Downs of England, are a long range of chalky hills, 
diverging from the great chalky stratum, which intersects 



74 BRITISH SHEEP. 

the kingdom, from Norfolk to Dorchester. The South 
Downs occupy a space of more than sixty miles in length, 
and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession 
of open downs, with few enclosures." They are princi- 
pally situated in the south part of the county of Sussex, a 
few miles back from the coast, and lie nearly parallel with 
it. 

" On these hills, a certain breed of sheep, thence called 
the South Down breed, has been cultivated for many cen- 
turies. They can trace a long line of pure descent from a 
period antecedent to William the Conqueror. It is, says 
Mr. Spooner, unquestionably the purest, and most unmixed 
breed in the kingdom. In 1776, Arthur Young speaks of 
them as having a fine coat, but at the expense of a thin 
chine, low fore end, and rising back bone. Their fleeces, 
in their unimproved state, averaged 2^ lbs." 

" At the present time, the South Down holds a place, in 
the esteem of English breeders, inferior to no other breed. 
It is considered to be first among the short-wooled, as the 
New Leicester is first among the long-wooled breeds. 

" The South Downs have reached their present perfec- 
tion by constant attention to the purity of the original breed, 
and by the improvement of their forms. By this improve- 
ment, they have become smaller in bone, with greater dis- 
position to fatten, an earlier maturity, and a heavier carcass, 
while still retaining their former hardihood and capability 
of doing well on scanty pasture. This constitutes the per- 
fection of the breed : they can endure the rigor of the wea- 
ther, and preserve flesh, where a Leicester sheep would 
die. 

" The perfection of form which the South Down now ex- 
hibits, is owing to the skill of that distinguished sheep- 
breeder, John Ellman. The improvements effected by him, 
resulted mainly from the practice of the true principles ot 
breeding : a system of choice selection of the best males and 
females for this purpose. 

" The introduction of the use of turnips, and other arti- 
ficial food, has tended greatly to increase the number, and 
improve the quality of the sheep. The improvement of the 
South Downs has, therefore, been slower in its progross 
than that of some other breeds ; but it has been obtained 






BRITISH SHEEP. 75 

without any sacrifice of the intrinsic qualities of the ori- 
ginal breed. 

" Mr. Ellman describes the perfect South Down as fol- 
lows : " The head small and hornless ; the face speckled 
or grey, and neither too long nor too short ; the lips thin, 
and the space between the nose and eyes narrow. The 
under jaw, or chop, fine and thin ; the ears tolerably wide, 
and well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the 
whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a de- 
fence against the fly. The eye full and bright, but not 
prominent. The orbit of the eye (the eye cap or bone,) 
not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in 
lambing. The neck of a medium length, thin towards the 
head, but enlarging towards the shoulders, where it should 
be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above 
and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and project- 
ing forwards between the fore legs, indicating a good con- 
stitution, and a dispositon to thrive. Corresponding with 
this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and 
not too wide above : they should bow outward, from the top 
to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leav- 
ing room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from 
the spine, and extending backward, and the last rib project- 
ing more than the others; the back flat from the shoulders 
to the sitting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the 
rump long and broad ; and the tail set on high, and nearly 
on a level with the spine; the hips wide; the space be- 
tween them and the last rib, on either side, as narrow as 
possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a circular form 
like a barrel. 

" The belly as straight as the back. The legs neither 
too long nor too short. The fore legs straight from the 
breast to the foot : not bending inward at the knee, and 
standing far apart both before and behind ; the hocks hav- 
ing a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meet- 
ing of the thighs behind, being particularly full ; the bones 
fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and the legs of 
a dark color. 

*' The belly well defended with wool, and the wool com- 
ing down before and behind to the knee and to the bock : 
the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiry 
projecting fibres. 



76 BRITISH SHEEP. 

" Their wool is not so fine as formerly, and is much used 
for combing purposes, for which it is now highly prized. — 
It is also converted into flannels and baizes." The aver- 
age weight of their fleeces formerly did not exceed 2£ lbs., 
and the staple, at that time, was very short. It has now 
increased to 3 lbs.; and the lowland South Down shears 
from 3-£ to 4 lbs. 

" The staple was formerly from 1£ to 2 inches in length, 
It is now, in many cases, from 3 to 4 inches. 

" This breed will endure hard stocking equal to any other; 
and their early maturity is but little inferior to that of the 
New Leicesters, the wethers being frequently fatted off at 
twenty-two months, sometimes at fifteen, and rarely exceed- 
ing thirty-two months in England. 

'• The average weight is from 15 to 18 lbs. to the quar- 
ter. But at the age of thirty-two months, they have occa- 
sionally reached twenty stones, or 280 lbs., the four quar- 
ters. They make more fat internally than the Leicester 
sheep, and are therefore greater favorites with the butcher. 
Their flesh is finely grained, and of peculiarly good flavor; 
and superior to that of the Leicesters." 

They are very prolific, frequently producing twins, aud 
being great milkers, are generally able to nurse them well, 
without becoming impoverished. 

" There are no sheep more healthy than the South 
Downs. They seldom suffer from hydatid on the brain, 
nor, on the majority of the farms, are they so much expo- 
sed to the rot, as in many other districts." — (Youatt.) 

This circumstance shows the influence which the chalk, 
{lime) which abounds in the soils of the South Downs, has 
in preveming the rot. In New England, it is proverbial 
that a smutty-faced sheep is seldom diseased. 

The South Down sheep are less hardy ihan the moun- 
tain breeds of England, but are sufficiently hardy for tho 
drier climate of the hilly regions of the United States, to 
which they are admirably adapted. 

" In 1800, two of Mr. Ellmairs rams were sold to the 
Emperor of Russia for 150 guineas each. When Mr. Ell- 
man retired from public life in J 829, his flock was sold by 
auction at the following rates: 770 ewes, $13,04 each; 
320 lambs, at $7,92; 30 rams, at $112,50 each—and his 
best ram, $292,50. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



7? 



" The county of Sussex, in which this breed was first 
so much improved, still retains its prominence. Most 
of the modern flocks are founded on Ell man's." — (W. C. 
Spooner.) 

THE DORSET BREED. 




THE DORSET EWE. 



*' This is a very ancient breed, preserved unmixed from 
a very remote period, and decidedly the best of all the old 
horned sheep. Though now found in many parts of Brit- 
ain, they are principally met with in Dorsetshire. They 
do not, however, extend entirely over the county, but di- 
vide it with the South Downs, and are mostly found in its 
western part, and particularly in the neighborhood of Dor- 
chester, the county town." 

The pure Dorset sheep is larger than the South Down, 
longer on the legs : is entirely white : the horns of moder- 
ate size in both sexes. Their faces are long and broad, 
with a tuft of wool on the forehead. The shoulders are 
low, but broad : the back straight : the chest deep : the 
loins broad : the legs rather beyond a moderate length, and 
the bone small. The hind quarter is good, but the fore 
quarter is somewhat deficient; the wethers average from 16 



78 BRITISH SHEEP. 

to 20 lbs. the quarter; though in some, this weight will be 
greatly exceeded. Their mutton is well-flavored. Their 
wool is moderately fine, and somewhat longer than the 
South Down, averaging about three and a half or four lbs. 
the fleece. 

" They are a strong, hardy, active sheep, good travelers, 
and well adapted for folding, though somewhat apt to break 
through their fences, and by no means so docile as their ri- 
vals, the South Downs. Their principal value consists in 
their excellence as nurses, great prolificacy, and the early 
period at which they. take the ram. They very frequently 
have twin lambs, and will rear a greater number of lambs 
than any other description of sheep. They take the ram 
so early as May and June, and the lambs are usually drop- 
ped in October and November ; so that they are the princi- 
pal source of the supply of house and early lamb, which, 
about Christmas and the following month, is esteemed a 
great luxury, and accordingly commands a high price. 

" The Dorsetshire and Wicklow varieties are most noted 
for raising early lambs, and are selected for this purpose in 
the vicinity of large wealthy towns. According to the plan 
pursued in Middlesex, " the sheep which begin to lamb 
about Michselmas, are kept in the close during the day, and 
in the house during the night, until they have produced 
twenty or thirty lambs. These lambs are then put into a 
iamb-house, which is kept constantly well littered with 
clean wheat straw; and chalk, both in lump and powder, is 
provided for them to lick, in order to prevent looseness, 
and thereby preserve the lambs in health. As a preventive 
against gnawing the boards, or eating each other's wool, a 
little wheat straw is placed, with the ears downwards, in a 
rack within their reach, with which they amuse themselves, 
and of which they eat a small quantity. In this house they 
are kept, with great care and attention, until they are fit for 
the butcher. 

" The mothers of the lambs are turned every night, at 
eight o'clock, into the lamb-house to their offspring. At 
six o'clock in the morning, these mothers are separated 
from their lambs, and turned into their pastures; and at 
eight o'clock, such ewes as have lost their own lambs, and 
those whose lambs are sold, are brought in and held by the 
head, till the lambs, by turns, suck them clean ; they are 



BRITISH SHEEP. 79 

then turned into the pasture ; and at twelve o'clock, the 
mothers of the lambs are driven from the pasture into the 
lamb-house for an hour, in the course of which time each 
lamb is suckled by its mother. At four o'clock, all the 
ewes that have not lambs of their own, are again brought 
to the lamb-house, and held for the lambs to suck; and at 
eight, the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the 
night. 

" This method of suckling is continued all the year. — 
The breeders select such of the lambs as become fat enough, 
and of proper age, (about eight weeks old,) for slaughter, 
and send them to the market during December, and three 
or four succeeding months, at prices which vary from one 
guinea to four, and the rest at about two guineas each. — 
This is severe work for the ewes, and some of them die 
from exhaustion. However, care is taken that they have 
plenty of food; for when green food (viz: turnips, cole, 
rye, tares, clover, &c.,) begin to fail, brewers' grains are 
given to them in troughs, and second crop hay in racks, as 
well to support the ewes, as to supply the lambs with plen- 
ty of milk ; for if that should not be abundant, the lambs 
would become stunted, in which case no food would fatten 
them. 

" A lamb-house to suckle from one hundred and sixty to 
one hundred and eighty lambs at a time, should be seventy 
feet long, and eighteen broad, with three coops of different 
sizes at each end, and so constructed as to divide the lambs 
according to size." — (Middlesex Report.) 

" In the county of Wicklow, it is the practice to divide 
the twenty-four hours by four equal periods, and to feed 
the lambs with ewe's milk and cow's milk alternately. — 
When commencing with cow's milk, a quarter of a pint is 
given twice a day to each lamb, and this is gradually in- 
creased to a pint, exclusive of the milk from the ewe. The 
ewe is thus saved the bad effects of exhaustion, and the 
lambs are fit for the butcher when six weeks old, or sooner." 
— (Blacklock.) 

•'This practice of rearing house-lamb, is not so much 
adopted as it used to be : there is a greater supply of grass- 
lamb, and consequently, the price of the former is reduced, 
and will not repay so great an expense, as well as trouble, 



80 BRITISH SHEEP. 

as used to be bestowed on the production of this luxury.'* 
— (W. C. Spooner.) % 

The Somerset Sheep is a larger variety of the Dorset, 
having more arched profiles, with pink noses, instead of 
white; the wool somewhat longer. 

RYELAND SHEEP. 

" This breed of sheep has been preserved pure from a 
remote period of English history, in the county of Here- 
ford. It has been termed the Byeland breed, from some 
sandy spots used in the production of rye in the county of 
Hereford, and in Hereford, is frequently termed the Here- 
ford breed. These sheep are of small, compact forms, 
without horns, quiet in their habits, patient and hardy. — 
The mutton is delicate and juicy; and the carcass from 12 
to 15 lbs. the quarter. The wool is white, and extends 
over the face, and forms a tuft on the forehead. They are 
principally distinguished for the fineness of their wool, 
which is superior for carding purposes to all other of Eng- 
lish production, the Merino alone excepted. But their 
fleeces are light, averaging only two pounds. At the pres- 
ent day, very few flocks of this breed are to be found in a 
state of purity in England — other breeds having been found 
more profitable."— (W. C. Spooner.) 

There are several other old Upland breeds of sheep in 
England, a description of which would be neither particu- 
larly interesting or useful to the reader. 



SECTION XII. 

LONG-WOO LED BREEDS. 

" The long-wooled breeds of sheep are, properly, the na- 
tives of the rich and marshy pastures of England, from 
whence, with the improvement of Agriculture, they have 
extended to all parts of Britain, encroaching, in many pla- 
ces, on the land previously appropriated to short-wooled 
sheep ; so that, for years past, they have been gradually 
increasing, while their rivals have decreased, or remained 



BRITISH SHEEP. 81 

the same. The cause of this may be found in the fact, 
that on suitable land they are undoubtedly more profitable 
than the short-wooled varieties ; the much greater weight of 
the fleece, yielding as much per pound, will account for 
this, even if the superior aptitude for fattening, and earlier 
maturity of one particular variety were not also in opera- 
tion. 

" Whilst many of the Upland and mountain breeds have 
been preserved unmixed from time immemorial, most of 
the ancient long-wooled breeds have either altogether dis- 
appeared, or are preserved by the curious in individual 
flocks ; they have either been altogether supplanted by the 
New Leicester, or are in a great measure changed by cross- 
ing with this improved breed. 

4 * Mr. Low makes a distinction of two classes of long- 
wooled sheep : one belonging to the marshes and fens, and 
the other to the inland plains. The former includes the 
Lincoln and Romney Marsh; the latter, the Teeswater, 
the Leicester, and other varieties." — (W. C. Spooner.) 

THE LINCOLN SHEEP. 

" The fens of Lincolnshire, extending into Norfolk, 
Cambridgeshire, and the adjoining counties, are well adapt- 
ed for the support of a heavy breed of sheep : and this ac- 
cordingly is the native district of the old Lincoln, a breed 
in its pure state almost extinct. But a flock is still preserv- 
ed by Mr. Jex, of Norfolk. 

" The Lincoln sheep has no horns : the face is white : 
they are of large size and coarse form, with flat sides, and 
hollow flanks: the legs thick, white, and rough: bones 
large : pelts thick : the wool from 8 to 10 inches in length : 
their fleeces from 10 to 12 pounds, and upward : the wool 
is somewhat coarser than that of the Leicester, but is well 
adapted for worsted goods. The ewes weigh from 14 to 20 
lbs. the quarter, and three year old wethers, 20 to 30 lbs. the 
quarter. The wethers, when fat, have been known "to 
reach the enormous weight of 60 lbs. the quarter; but their 
mutton is, of course, not so delicate as that of the smaller 
breeds. They fed slowly, but made much internal fat, and 
were, therefore, much approved by the butcher. 

" The old Lincoins have been greatly modified by exten- 
eive crossing with the New Leicester, the effect of which 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



has been to diminish the size and weight of the fleece, but 
greatly to improve the form, giving a greater aptitude to 
fatten, and earlier maturity, and a capability of keeping a 
greater number on the same extent of land. Nevertheless, 
the mixed breed now presents the largest sheep in Europe." 
— (W. C. Spooner.) 

" Mr. Clark, of Canwick, in 1827, exhibited two wether 
sheep in Lincoln market, the fleeces of which had each 
yielded 12 lbs. : They were slaughtered : the carcass of 
the large one weighed 251 lbs.: the fore quarters were each 
of them 73 lbs., and the hind quarters, 57-£- lbs. On the 
top of the rib, the solid fat measured nine inches in thick- 
ness! " 

The Lincoln sheep are generally sheared in June, about 
ten days after being washed ; and the average weight of 
the Lincoln fleece, of the present time, is about 7 lbs. — 
Smearing after shearing is not practiced upon this breed of 
sheep. They are permitted to have their first lambs when 
about two years old. This breed, as well as some others, 
have become much more numerous in England since the 
introduction of turnip husbandry. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 
ROMNEY MARSH BREED. 



83 




(ROMNEY MARSH EWE.) 

" The other breed of sheep proper to marsh land, is that 
which from time immemorial has been found on the south- 
ern coast of Kent, denominated the Romney Marsh. This 
marsh is nearly on a level with the sea, from which it was 
reclaimed many centuries ago, and from its encroachment 
is preserved by means of dikes similar to the land of Hol- 
land. It extends fourteen miles in length, and ten in its 
greatest breadth, and, for the most part, consists of a rich 
clay soil, well adapted for the production of a large breed 
of sheep. And, consequently, we find they are more nu- 
merous than on any other space of land of equal extent — it 
being not uncommon for seven young sheep, and as many 
fattening wethers, to be placed on an acre. 

" The native breed of this district w r ere large, coarse an- 
imals, though somewhat smaller than the old Lincoln. — 
They had long, coarse, thick heads and limbs, narrow 
chests, and flat sides, but with large bellies. They fatted 
slowly, not being fit for the butcher till three years old : at 
which age the wethers averaged from 35 to 40 lbs. per 
quarter, and yielded much internal fat. Their fleeces av- 



4 



84 BRITISH SHEEP. 

eraged from 6 to 7 lbs. Their wool is long and not fine. 
They have n?uch hardihood : they bear their cold and ex- 
posed situation well, and they require no artificial food du- 
ring the hardest winter, except a linle hay. 

" For the most part, they have been extensively crossed 
with the New Leicester, and have, in consequence, been 
greatly improved in form. With less bulk, they have an 
earlier maturity, and a greater disposition to fatten." — (W. 
C. Spooner.) 

THE TEESWATER. 

" This is an ancient breed of sheep, called after the Tees, 
a river separating the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, 
and running through a fertile valley. 

" The old Teeswater was a large, tall sheep, of very 
uncouth form, having a coarse head, rounded haunches, 
and long, large limbs, and being hornless, are supposed to 
have been originally of the same stock as the Lincoln. — 
These sheep fattened slowly, requiring good pasture. But 
they possessed the quality of being very prolific, commonly 
yielding twins, and supplying them with an abundance of 
milk. Their fleece weighed about nine pounds, previous 
to any improvement of the carcass by the cross with the 
New Le'icester ; and the wool was remarkably long, coarse, 
and thinly set on the skin. They have been improved by 
a cross with the New Leicester, so as to rival them in early 
maturity, disposition to fatten, as well as quality of fleece." 

THE BAMPTON NOTT. 

" This is along-wooled breed of sheep, found in the fer- 
tile valleys of Devonshire and Somersetshire, and called 
Bampton, from a village of that name on the borders of the 
two counties. They had white faces, long and heavy 
fleeces, coarse forms, thick skins, and weighed from 30 to 
35 lbs. per quarter, at two years old. A smaller variety, 
having brown faces, crooked legs, and flat sides, were de- 
nominated the Southern Notts, and they weighed, at thirty 
months, 25 lbs. per quarter. The fleece was long and soft, 
weighing 9 or 10 lbs. Both these breeds fattened slowly, 
and were long in coming to maturity ; but being extensively 
crossed with the New Leicester, their defects have, in a 
great measure, been removed, and they now form a large 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



85 



and valuable breed of sheep : so much so, that a wether 
slaughtered in 1835, weighed no less than 70 lbs. per quar- 
ter."— (W. C. Spooner.) 



? ^ V V , 



jfli 



^iro.^'it'i 







«v3MB 



THE COTSWOLD EWE. 



THE COTSWOLD BREED. 

The following account of this breed is by Mr. Spooner : 
44 This is an ancient and celebrated breed, its wool being 
spoken of very favorably by many old writers. Cotswold 
signifies a sheep-fold and a naked hill. The Cotswold hills, 
the native tract of this breed, are of moderate elevation, 
possess a sweet herbage, and though formerly consisiing 
mostly of bleak wastes, have been latterly much improved. 
Camden speaks of the breed as having fine and soft wool. 
Drayton speaks of its fleeces as more abundant than those 
of Sarum and Leominster. Speed, writing 200 years ago, 
speaks of the wool as being similar to the Ryeland, and ri- 
valling that of Spain, Indeed, some imagine it was the or- 
igin of the Merino sheep, as in 1404, Edward the IV per- 
mitted a number to be exported to Spain, where they great- 
ly increased and spread. Spain, however, before this, was 
celebrated foi the fineness of its wool. Markham, in the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, speaks of the Cotswold as hav- 



86 BRITISH SHEEP. 

ing long wool. And Mr. Marshal, and other writers, con- 
sider that they have always been a long-wooled breed. 

" It is difficult to reconcile these differences of opinion : 
for my own part, I am disposed to think that the present 
race are the descendants of the old race. Be that as it may, 
we have no evidence, either oral, written, or traditional, of 
the change having been made. 

" The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long 
and abundant fleece ; and the ewes are very prolific, and 
good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, 
and fattened in the valleys of the Severn and the Thames. 
But with the enclosure of the Cotswold hills, and the im- 
provement of their cultivation, they have been reared and 
fattened in the same district. 

" They have been extensively crossed with the Leices- 
ter sheep, by which their size and fleece have been some- 
what diminished, but their carcasses considerably improv- 
ed, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are 
now sometimss fattened at 14 months, when they weigh 
from 15 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years old, increase 
to 20 or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good 
color, though rather coarse ; six to eight inches in length, 
and from 7 to 8 lbs. the fleece. 

" The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over 
the Leicester, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, 
and their abundance of milk, have-rendered them, in many 
places, rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for 
them, of late years, more attention to their selection and 
general treatment, under which management still further 
improvement appears probable. 

44 They have also been used in improving other breeds, 
and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is 
^ndeed the improved Cotswold, that under the term New or 
improved Oxfordshire sheep, are so frequently the success- 
ful candidates for prices offered for the best long-wooled 
sheep, at some of the principal agricultural meetings or 
shows in the Kingdom. 

fV The quality of the mutton is considered superior to 
that of the Leciester, the tallow being less abundant, with 
a larger developement of muscle or flesh. We may, there- 
tore, consider this breed as one of established reputation, 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



87 



and extending itself throughout every district of the King- 
dom. 

THE OLD LEICESTER SHEEP. 

This breed of sheep is thus described by Mr. Youatt : — 
" This was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed, common 
to most of the midland counties, and reaching from the 
south of Yorkshire as far as to Oxfordshire and Gloucester- 
shire. It had a white face, no horns ; it was long and thin 
in the carcass, flat-sided, with large bones, thick, rough, 
and white legs; and weighing, the ewe from 15 to 20 lbs., 
and the wether from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. It was cov- 
ered with wool from 10 to 14 inches in length, coarse in 
quality, and weighing from 8 to 13 lbs. The pelt and offal 
were thick and coarse : the animal was a slow feeder, and 
the flesh was coarse grained, and with little flavor." 




THE NEW LEICESTER 'RAM. 
THE NEW LEICESTER BREED. 

The following selections from the works of Messrs. 
Youatt, Blacklock, and Spooner, will illustrate the origin, 
formation, and qualities of this breed : 

" The New Leicester is an artificial breed of sheep, 
which was moulded, as it were, into its present form by the 
master hand of Bakewel.U The actual sources from whence 



83 BRITISH BREED. 

Mr. Bakewell derived his breed, cannot be accurately as- 
certained. He himself was very uncommunative on this 
point, and the knowledge of the origin of the breed perish- 
ed with him. It is probable, however, that the foundation 
of his breed was, the best existing specimens of the old 
Leicester breed. 

" It was about the middle of the last century, that Mr. 
Bakewell undertook his improvements in breeding sheep. 
Up to this period, very little care had been bestowed upon 
the breeding of sheep in England. Two objects appear to 
have engrossed the attention of breeders : first, to breed 
animals of the largest size; and, secondly, such as should 
produce the largest possible fleeces; and with little regard 
to the proportion of food consumed, or any diminution of 
the quantity of offal, in the animals produced. 

" The opinion of Mr. Bakewell was, that the first object 
to be attended to in breeding sheep (in England, where 
meat is high priced), was the improvement of the carcass ; 
and that the fleece was a secondary consideration. Find- 
ing that animals of a medium size, and symmetrically sha- 
ped, consumed less food in proportion to the quantity of 
useful meat produced, than the largest but ill-formed ani- 
mals ; and that sheep, carrying very heavy fleeces, have 
less propensity to fatten, than those with lighter fleeces, he 
selected sheep of only moderate size and compact forms, 
for the foundation of his flock. 

" Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he 
carefully attended to the peculiarities of the individuals 
from which he bred, and, it appears, did not object to breed- 
ing .occasionally from those which were of near affinity, 
when, by so doing, he could produce a progeny possessing 
the characteristics he wished to obtain. 

" By systematically and unremittingly carrying out his 
principles, he at length produced animals which surpassed 
all others in the qualities sought for by him, comprising, as 
Mr. Cully observes, in the same apparent dimensions, 
greater weight than any other sheep, with an earlier matu- 
rity, and a greater propensity to fatten, a diminution of the 
quantity of offal, and the return of most money for the 
quantity of food consumed. 

" And although they are not adapted to the poorest soils, 
where the herbage is so scanty that the sheep must walk 



BRITISH SHEEP. 89 

over a great extent of ground for the purpose of procuring 
its food, nor to mountainous or bleak situations in northern 
climes, for which they are not sufficiently hardy, no other 
sort of mutton sheep, on soils of moderate or superior qual- 
ity, is more profitable to the breeder, or produces more 
meat, according to the amount of food consumed : and at 
the present day, this breed remains the most perfect of 
any, in the form of the carcass." 

The various points of the Leicester sheep have been thus 
correctly described : 

** The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering to- 
wards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards: 
the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression : the ears 
thin, rather long, and directed backwards : the neck full 
and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, but 
gradually tapering towards the head, and being particularly 
fine at the junction of the head and neck — the neck seem- 
ing to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with 
the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal 
line from the rump to the poll : the breast broad and full : 
the shoulders broad and round, and no uneven or angular 
formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the 
back, particularly no rising of the withers or hollow behind 
the situation of these bones : the arm fleshy through its 
whole extent, and even down to the knee : the bones of the 
legs small, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about 
them, and comparatively bare of wool : the chest and bar- 
rel at once deep and round : the ribs forming a considera- 
ble arch from the spine, so as, in some cases, and espe- 
cially when the animal is in good condition, to make the 
apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth : 
the barrel ribbed well home, no irregularity of line on the 
back or the belly, but on the sides, the carcass very gradu- 
ally diminishing in width towards the rump : the quarters 
long and full, and as with the fore legs, the muscles ex- 
tending down to the hock : the thighs also wide and full : 
the legs of a moderate length : the pelt also moderately 
thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity 
of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but consider- 
ably finer." 

The following is the measurement of a three years old 
ram of Mr. Bakewell's : 



90 BRITISH SHEEP. 

Girth, 5 feet, 10 inches. 

Height, 2 " 5 " 

Breadth of collar, ----- 1 » 4 " 
Breadth of shoulders, - - - - 1 *' 1 1^ ** 

Breadth across the ribs, - - - 1 " 10£ " 

Breadth across the hips, - - - 1 " 9£ " 

" The various qualifications above mentioned, were not 
obtained until great and long continued attention had been 
paid to the peculiarities of individuals, adapting the ram to 
the ewe, so as to correct the faults which either possessed ; 
and thus, by carefully and progressively getting rid of faults, 
gradually approaching perfection ; which, though it may 
be rarely or never reached, should yet be the constant aim 
of the breeder. 

" The perfection to which this breed has now been 
brought, is owing to various other breeders besides Mr. 
Bakewell ; amongst whom may be mentioned Mr. Cully, 
as one of the first and most succeessful. 

The disadvantages of the Leicester are, compared with 
many other breeds, a certain weakness of constitution, an 
inability to bear exposure to the weather, and a greater pre- 
disposition to inflammatory diseases; to which may be ad- 
ded, a want of prolificacy in the ewes as nurses, and for- 
merly, a deficiency in weight of the fleece. These points, 
however, have been much improved since the time of 
Bakewell, and where the purity of the breed is not an ob- 
ject, they have been altogether avoided, by crossing with 
those breeds which excel in qualities in which the Leices- 
ter is deficient, such, particularly, as the Cotswold and the 
Bampton Notts. 

The wool has considerably increased in length, and has 
improved both in fineness and strength of fibre : the fibre 
varies from five to more than twelve inches in length. 
In sheep sixteen months old, it is soft, but somewhat infe- 
rior, for combing purposes, to that of the older races. It is 
mostly used in the manufacture of serges and carpets. 

The lambs of the pure Leicester are rarely shorn (in 
England) until the second year, when the fleece often 
weighs 8 lbs., and is very long in the staple, and as teg 
wool is more valuable. The ewe fleeces average about 
6 lbs., and those of the fat wethers, though shorn in May, 
average from 7 to 9 lbs. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 91 

The carcass, however, (in England,) is the principal con- 
sideration ; and the early maturity of the Leicester breed 
is such, that the wethers are not unfrequently fattened at 
fifteen months, and at two years old will often weigh from 
25 to 36 lbs. per quarter. The flesh, too, is accumulated 
most where it is most valuable, and the fat is distributed, 
for the most part, on and amongst the muscles, and exter- 
nally, and less within the body and around the kidneys, 
than in other breeds. The weight of the hind and fore 
quarters, also, approximate much nearer than those of most 
other breeds ; and the dead weight of the Leicester sheep, 
is greater in proportion to the live weight than in any other 
breed. 

The kind of meat which they yield is of a peculiar char- 
acter. When the sheep are not over fattened, it is tender 
and juicy, but, in the opinion of many persons, somewhat 
insipid. 

The Leicester sheep were never favorites with the butch- 
er, because they had little loose inside fat. It ought, nev- 
ertheless, to be recollected, that the smallness of the head 
and the thinness of the pelt, will, in some measure, coun- 
terbalance the loss of tallow : and that the diminution of 
offal is advantageous to the grazier, for it shows a disposi- 
tion to form fat outwardly, and is uniformly accompanied 
by a tendency to quickness of improvement. As the New 
Leicesters come early to maturity, so also their old age is 
premature; they are shorter lived than most other breeds. 
Hence, in England, the ewes are generally fatted off and dis- 
posed of at the close of their third breeding season, or when 
four years and a half old. And all the wether lambs, and 
also all the ewe lambs, except what may be necessary to 
keep good the amount of breeding stock, are generally fat- 
tened off and sold at or before they are eighteen months or 
two years old. 

The New Leicesters are not so prolific as some other 
breeds : they seldom produce twins. The object of Mr. 
Bakewell and his immediate followers was, to produce a 
lamb that could be forced on, so as to be ready at the ear- 
liest possible period for breeding or slaughter; and, there- 
fore, the production of twins was not only unsought for, but 
was regarded as an evil, as they are but indifferent milk- 
ers. 



92 BRITISH SHEEP. 

These various advantages in a great measure counter- 
balance, and, indeed, outweigh the defects of the breed, and 
sufficiently account for the facts, that in the course of fifty 
years it had either supplanted, or was crossed with nearly 
every long-wooled breed in the country, (England,) that it 
had, in numerous instances, caused the substitution of long 
for short-wooled sheep, and that it has added greatly to the 
sheep stock of that country, both as regards the wool and 
flesh. And alter producing these changes, the Leicester, 
in most respects, maintains its grounds; but of late years, 
the opinions of breeders have inclined towards producing a 
larger animal, as being attended with more profit ; and thus 
the improved Cotswold, often denominated the New Ox- 
fordshire, and some of the heavier breeds, are now success- 
ful rivals of the pure Dishley breed. 

Nevertheless, the improved Leicester still commands a 
large extent of the most fertile districts in England, and is 
also cultivated in Scotland with equal care and success, up- 
on similar soils. It has been exported to the continent of 
Europe, and has been extensively introduced into the North 
American British provinces and the United States, and when 
placed in suitable localities in America, has been bred suc- 
cessfully. They appear to be well adapted to the rich and 
level lands of the Western States, and to be more hardy, 
and less liable to disease, in the United States, than what 
they are represented to be in Britain. 

Robert Bakewell was born about the year 1725, on his 
paternal estate in Leicestershire, and died there, October 1, 
1795. Though it does not appear that he contributed any- 
thing to literature, yet his efforts to improve the breed of 
sheep and cattle, justly procured him a widely extended 
reputation. In the year 1760, the first Dishley ram was 
let for 16 shillings (sterling) the season, and it was not till 
twenty years afterwards that Bakewell received anything 
like a remunerating price. It was then only ten guineas ; 
but it afterwards rapidly increased till, in 1786, he realized 
300 guineas for one ram ; and three years afterwards, he 
obtained no less than six thousand two hundred guineas for 
thetftire of rams: thus handsomely repaying him for his 
long-continued and untiring exertions. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 93 

MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 

The following remarks of Messrs. Youatt and Spooner 
•will sufficiently illustrate this subject : 

" In England, the Merino has received a fair trial, but 
from causes which can be readily explained, they have not 
been profitably bred. The first attempt was made by 
George the III, who was a zealous agriculturist. A flock 
was first procured clandestinely from Estramadura, in 
Spain, but they were, found to be altogether inferior. In 
1741, a small but very superior flock (of the Negretti 
breed) were presented to his Majesty, and though at first 
they suffered much from the rot and the foot rot, yet the 
survivors became naturalized to the soil, and remained 
healthy, and the wool maintained its quality. The breed 
became fashionable ; they were crossed extensively with 
the South Down, the Wiltshire, the Leicester, and also up- 
on the Ryeland, by Dr. Parry, and, for some years, the 
rams were let at high prices. It was thought that by these 
means, the wool of our (Euglish) breeds would be greatly 
improved, and their other qualities retained. But it was 
found that whilst the wool was still greatly inferior to the 
pure Merino, the other qualities of the sheep were deteri- 
orated to a great extent. The carcass became inferior, the 
constitution less hardy, and the experiments so unprofitable, 
that they were almost universally abandoned. The im- 
provement of the wool would by no means compensate for 
the loss arising from a deficiency in the carcass : for such 
is the demand for meat of the best quality in this country, 
and such is the prjce which it accordingl}'- commands, that 
the flesh must still remain the principal source of profit, 
and, indeed, the only one that can meet the heavy expense 
incurred in raising artificial food. As this cannot be retain- 
ed in connexion with the finer description of wool, we must 
be content with possessing it with wool of an inferior qual- 
ity. Very few, if any flocks, of Merino, are retained pure 
in England. Mr. Bennet retains a flock in Wiltshire, it is 
said, in a state of purity, or nearly so. But, in most cases, 
they are considerably crossed with other breeds, and, in 
many cases, so largely, that the principal characteristics of 
the Merino have disappeared." 

Mr. Youatt's remarks are as follows : 

" In Great Britain, where a system of artificial feeding 



94 BRITISH SHEEP 

is carried to so great a degree of perfection, where the 
sheep is so early and so profitably brought to market, that 
breed, however it may ultimately increase the value of 
the wool, can never be adopted, which is deficient, as 
the Merinos undeniably are, in the principle of early matu- 
rity and general propensity to fatten." 

Doubtless the Merino might be bred in England on suit- 
able soils, and with good shelters, with as little difficulty as 
in Denmark; but the facts above stated are sufficient to 
show why it cannot be done advantageously. 

NAMES APPLIED TO SHEEP. 

The following (from Blacklock,) is a condensed arrange- 
ment of the names by which sheep are designated at differ- 
ent periods of their existence, in various parts of England 
and Scotland : 

FROM BIRTH TILL WEANING. 

Male. — Tup, Ram lamb, Heeder, Pur. 
Female. — Ewe or Gimmer lamb, Chilver. 

FROM WEANING TILL FIRST CLIP. 

Male. — Hog, Hogget, Hoggerel, Teg, Lamb-hog, Tup- 
hog, Gridiing, and if castrated, a Wether hog. 

Female. — Gimmer hog, Ewe hog, Teg, Sheeder ewe, 
Thrave. 

FROM FIRST TO SECOND CLIP. 

Male. — Shearling, Shear hog, Heeder, Diamond or Din- 
mom ram, or Tup, and when castrated, a Shearing wether. 

Female. — Shearing ewe or Gimmer,Double-toothed ewe, 
or Teg, Yill gimmer. 

FROM SECOND TILL THIRD CLIP. 

Male. — Two shear ram, young wedder. 
Female. — Two shear ewe, counter. 

FROM THIRD TILL FOURTH CLIP. 

Male. — Three shear ram, old wedder. 
Female. — Three shear ewe, Fronter. 

And so on, the name always taking its date from the time 
of shearing, and not from the birth of the lamb. Broken- 
mouthed ewes are called crones in Suffolk and Norfolk ; 
krocks, or crocks, in Scotland ; and drapes in Lincolnshire. 
In Scotland, ewes which are neither with lamb, nor giving 
milk, are said to be eild. or yield. 



BRITISH SHEEP. 



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96 AMERICAN SHEEP. 



SECTION XIII. 

NORTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 

The sheep was not indigenous to any part of America, 
unless the Argali should be considered a sheep ; and the 
only animal which is indigenous to North America, the 
qualities of whose fleece or covering approximates towards 
that of the domestic sheep, is a species of goat, which is 
found about the country of the Flat-Head Indians, among 
the Rocky Mountains. It is known by the name of the 
" wooly sheep," and is frequently confounded with the 
Argali. Captain Bonneville says : " It has white wool like 
a sheep, mingled with a thin growth of long hair ; but it has 
short legs, a deep belly, and a beard like a goat. Its horns 
are about five inches long, slightly curved backwards, black 
as jet, and beautifully polished. Its hoofs are of the same 
color. The flesh is said to have a musty flavor. Its wool 
alone gives it a resemblance to the sheep. Some have 
thought that the fleece might be valuable, as it is said to be 
as fine as the goat of Cashmere; but it is not to be procu- 
red in sufficient quantities. It is not so plentiful as the big- 
horn (Argali) ; rarely more than two or three being seen at 
a time. It inhabits cliffs in summer, but in winter de- 
scends into the vallies. This animal is by no means so ac- 
tive as the big-horn ; it does not bound much, but sits a 
good deal upon its haunches." 

Hence, in the first settlement of the United States, the 
colonists were necessitated to introduce the domestic sheep, 
and it is presumed that they brought with them those kinds 
of British sheep which were peculiar to those districts from 
which they embarked. These sheep seem to have been 
bred promiscuously, so that previous to the importation of 
the Merinos, they did not fully resemble any one of the 
old British breeds. 

They were generally long-legged, narrow-chested, flat- 
sided, and comparatively slow in coming to maturity. — 
They yielded coarse white wool, of a medium length of 
staple, and the ewe fleeces averaged not exceeding 3 lbs. 
Their principal recommendation consisted in being prolific 
breeders and good nurses. But they were untraceable, and 



AMERICAN SHEEP. 97 

impatient of being confined within fences. They have been 
crossed generally with the Merino or improved British 
breeds, and have thus disappeared, except in some parts of 
the Southern States. 

The only new breed of sheep which have been formed 
out of those which were imported into this country by the 
colonists, which have or had anything peculiar in their 
character, are the Otter, the Arlington, and the Smith's Is- 
land Sheep. 

THE OTTER BREED. 

This breed was an accidental formation, and it shows 
how readily the sheep is operated upon by various circum- 
stances, so as to change its form and qualities. 

The precise point where this breed originated seems un- 
settled : Chancellor Livingston states that it was on an is- 
land opposite the New England coast. Another writer 
says it was in Massachusetts, and in a flock belonging to 
Seth Wright, and occurred in 1791. 

An ewe of the long-legged New England breed, being 
copulated with a tup of the same breed, gave birth to twins, 
one of which was a male, with extremely short legs, which 
were turned out at the knees in such a manner as to render 
them rickety. They could not run or jump, and even 
walked with difficulty. The body was long and round, but 
not large, and the breed was well formed, except as to legs. 
Their wool was similar to other New England sheep, and 
of a medium length. 

Curiosity at first led to the breeding from this ram, and 
the progeny presented a striking likeness to the size. They 
were valued only because they could be easily kept within 
the stone wall fences of New England. But as they were 
not well formed for moving about in deep snows, or travel- 
ing to market, the breed has been abandoned, and become 
extinct. 

THE ARLINGTON LONG-WOOLED SHEEP. 

Mr. Livingston notices this breed substantially as follows : 
" These, Mr. Custis, who was the original owner of them, 
informs me, were derived from the stock of that distinguish- 
ed farmer, statesman, and patriot, Washington, who had 
collected, at Mt. Vernon, whatever he believed useful to 



98 AMERICAN SHEEP. 

the agriculture* of his country ; and among other animals, 
a Persian ram, which Mr. Custis describes as being very 
large and well formed, carrying wool of great length, but 
of coarse staple. 

" This stock, intermixed with the Bakewell, are the 
source from which the fine Arlington sheep are derived — 
some of which carry wool fourteen inches in length, and 
their wool was fine ior the sort, soft, silky, and beautifully 
white. 

" They are formed upon the Bakewell model." 
This breed is still held in high estimation among some of 
the farmers in Virginia and Maryland, but are now much 
inferior to their ancestors, and the long- wool ed British 
breeds, both for mutton and value of fleece. — (L. A. Mor- 
rel.) 

smith's island sheep. 

This island, and the sheep bred upon it, were the prop- 
erty of Mr. Custis, and the following is extracted from his 
account of them : 

" This Island lies in the Atlantic Ocean, immediately at 
the Eastern cape of Virginia, and contains between three 
and four thousand acres. The length of this Island is esti- 
mated at fourteen miles, which gives that variety and 
change of pasture so necessary to the system of sheep-farm- 
ing. The soil, though sandy, is, in many parts, extremely 
rich, and productive of a succulent herbage, which sup- 
ports the stock at all seasons. About one half of this island 
is in wood, which is pierced with glades running parallel 
with the sea, and of several miles in extent. These.glades 
are generally wet, and being completely sheltered by the 
wood on either side, preserve their vegetation, in a great 
measure, through the winter, and thereby yield a support 
to the stock. Along the sea coast, also, are abundant scopes 
of pasturage, producing a short grass in summer, which is 
peculiarly grateful to the palates of most animals, and par- 
ticularly to sheep. The access to salt, also, forms a mate- 
rial feature in the many attributes which Smith's Island 
possesses. 

" The origin of the Smith's Island sheep cannot be pre- 
cisely ascertained, but they are supposed to be the indige- 
nous race of the country, put thereon about twenty years 



AMERICAN SHEEP. 99 

since, and improved by the hand of Nature. Their wool 
was very white, and comparatively fine, and was soft and 
silky to the touch. The staple was from 8 to 10 inches in 
length, and the fleeces averaged about 8 lbs." 

" The descendants of these flocks, though greatly degen- 
erated, are diffused over a wide section of Virginia, and 
further South."— (L. A. Morrel.) 

The accidental formation of this breed of sheep upon 
this island, shows the influence of rich pasturage upon the 
quality of the fleece, and the propriety of placing long- 
wooled breeds of sheep upon the rich level lands of the 
Western States, in preference to short or fine-wooled 
breeds. 

JAMAICA SHEEP. 

The island of Jamaica is situated in about 18 degrees 
north latitude. Being surrounded by the Ocean, the heat 
of the torrid zone is tempered by its breezes. On this is- 
land has originated a breed of sheep, the descendants of 
European coarse-wooled sheep, which is thus described in 
the American Philosophical Transactions, Vol. v., p. 153 ; 

" The Jamaica sheep forms a distinct variety, altogether 
different from any other I have ever seen. The hair is a 
substance sui generis, and is different from the kemp and 
siitchel hair of Europe, as from the long tough hair of the 
Russians, and other hairy breeds. The wool, too, is as dif- 
ferent from that of other sheep-wool, as the hair; it is 
finer than any other, not excepting the Shetland breed, al- 
though I should suspect that it is scarcely so soft." 

The accidental formation of this breed of sheep, from 
such an original, shows most conclusively that a mild and 
rather warm temperature is most congenial to the fine- 
wooled sheep. 

INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 

Previous to the year 1800. a few, and only a few, im- 
proved coarse-wooled sheep had been imported into the Uni- 
ted States from Britain and Holland. But as the people of 
the United States, in those times, were not sensible of the 
value of superior breeds of sheep, these imported sheep had 
little influence in improving ihe breed of sheep in the Uni- 
ted States, and comparatively kw good sheep existed in 



100 AMERICAN SHEEP. 

these States. The importation of the Merinos, and the 
high prices of their wool shortly afterwards, gave the first 
great impetus in the improving breeds of sheep. 

The first importation of Merino sheep into the United 
States, was by the Hon. William Foster, a merchant of 
Boston. In April, 1773, being at Cadiz, in Spain, he pur- 
chased of a drover from the Sierra Morena, three Merino 
sheep, on condition that he should bring them down with 
the drove for the shambles, and deliver them outside the 
city gate to a certain fisherman, who smuggled them for 
him on board the ship Bald Eagle, Captain John Atkins, 
master. With these sheep he arrived safe at Boston. — 
Soon after, being about to leave the United States for a long 
residence in France, he presented these sheep to his friend, 
Andrew Cragie, Esq., of Cambridge, who supposed that, as 
we had no woolen manufactories in the United States at 
that time, these sheep were not particularly valuable, and 
ate them. 

Early in the year 1801, Mr. Delessert, a French banker, 
purchased two pairs of Merinos, selected from the celebra- 
ted Rambouillet flock, near Paris, and shipped them the 
same year to the United States. Three of them perished 
on their passage; the survivor, a ram, was placed on his 
farm, near Kingston, New York. 

In the same year, Mr. Seth Adams (now of Zanesville, 
Ohio,) imported a pair from France, in the brig Reward, 
which arrived at Boston in the month of October. 

In the year 1802, Robert R. Livingston, being Minister 
Plenipotentiary from the United States at the court of 
France, obtained three or four Merinos of the Rambouillet 
flock, which he sent to New York, and placed on his farm. 

In the year 1801, Col. David Humphrey, being then Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary at the court of Spain, purchased two 
hundred Merinos in Spain, and shipped them to the United 
States. They arrived early in the spring of 1802. The 
manner of his obtaining them is thus related by Mr. Wil- 
liam Jarvis : 

" It was a custom of the Spanish court, when a foreign 
Minister was recalled, on taking leave/to make him a pres- 
ent of five or ten bars of gold — each bar, if I recollect right, 
was of one pound weight. But as the law of this country 
forbids any Minister taking any present from a foreign 



AMERICAN SHEEP. 101 

court, Mr. Humphreys declined it, but suggested to the Min- 
ister that he should be much gratified with a royal license 
to take out of the Kingdom two hundred Merino sheep. — 
This, the Minister stated, could not be granted, but intima- 
ted that if he wished to take them out, no obstruction 
should be thrown in his way. These were purchased in 
lower Leon or upper Estramadura, and driven down the 
valley of the Mondego to Figueira, where they were em- 
barked for the United States. I never could learn out of 
.what flock these sheep were obtained, but they were un- 
questionably pure blood Transhumantes, which is the only 
fact of importance worth knowing." 

In the years 1803-9-10-11, large numbers of Merinos 
were imported into the United States. The following is an 
extract from Mr. William Jams' account of their importa- 
tion. He says : 

" I attempted, in 1806, also in 1807, to obtain some 
from the most celebrated flocks. But the laws were so 
strict against their exportation, without a royal license, that 
I failed of success. After the French invasion in 1808, the 
law became more relaxed ; and in 1809, by special favor* 
1 obtained two hundred Escurials. At the second invasion 
of the French, under Joseph Bonaparte, the rapidity of the 
march of the French troops hurried the supreme Junta from 
Madrid, and they retired to Badajos. Being without mon- 
ey, and being afraid of disgusting the Estramadurans, 
by levying a tax on them, they were compelled to sell four 
of the first flocks in Spain, which had been confiscated in 
consequence of their proprietors joining the French. These 
were the Paular, previously owned by the Prince of Peace ; 
the Negretti, previously owned by the Conde del Gampo 
cle Alange ; the Acqueirres, which had been owned by the 
Conde of the same name ; and the Montarco, owned by the 
Conde de Montarco ; and were such sheep as could not 
have been got out of Spain, had it not been for the invasion 
of the French, and the distracted state of the country, 
growing out of this invasion. 

" When the Junta sold, it was upon the express condi- 
tion of their granting licences to carry them out of the 
Kingdom. Four thousand of the Paular flock were sent to 
England for the King : and Col. Downie, a Scotch officer 
in the Briiish service, but who abo held the rank of Gen- 



102 AMERICAN SHEEP. 

eral in the Spanish service, and I, purchased the remain- 
der of the flock, between three and four thousand more : ' 
And of this purchase, I took fourteen hundred, and he sent 
the rest to Scotland, with the exception of two or three hun- 
dred, which he sold to come to this country. 

" Sir Charles Stewart purchased the Negretti flock, and 
sent them to England, with the exception of two or three 
hundred, which I got out of his flock after they reached 
Lisbon. 

" I purchased about seventeen hundred of the Acqueir- 
res flock of the Junta, and the remainder were sold, and 
sent to England. The Montarco flock was bought by a 
Spaniard and a Portuguese, and about two thousand seven 
hundred were shipped to this country. I shipped to the 
United States the fourteen hundred Paulars, one thousand 
seven hundred Acqueirres, two hundred Escurials, and one 
hundred Negrettis, and about two hundred Montarcos. Of 
this number, one hundred was sent to Wiscasset and Port- 
land ; one thousand one hundred to Boston and Newbury- 
port; one thousand five hundred to New York ; three hun- 
dred and fifty to Philadelphia; two hundred and fifty to 
Baltimore ; one hundred to Alexandria; and two hundred 
to Norfolk and Richmond. 

" Besides those which I shipped to the United States on 
my own account, there were about three hundred Guada- 
loupes, purchased by others, and two to three hundred of 
the Paular stock, sold by Gen. Downie, shipped to Boston : 
and of the Montarco flock, shipped by others, about two 
thousand five hundred were sent to Boston, Providence, 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Savannah. The 
Guadaloupes, Paulars, and Montarcos, which were shipped 
to Boston by others, were for the account of Gorham Par- 
sons, Esq., Gen. Sumner, D. Tichenor, and E. H. Derby, 
Esq. All these sheep were shipped in the latter part of 
1809, and the early part of 181 1, and were the only Leon- 
esa Transhumantes, if we include Col. Humphrey's and 
Chancellor Livingston's, (which I have no doubt were of 
the same stock,) that were ever shipped to the United 
States. 

" Badajos is but little over one hundred miles from Lis- 
bon, and all the sheep purchased there, and in that vicinity, 
were shipped at Lisbon. I was then Consul there, and 



AMERICAN SHEEP. 103 

from my office, was actually acquainted with all the ship- 
ments, as certificates of property from me always accom- 
panied them." 

In the years 1827 and 1828, Mr. Henry D. Grove im- 
ported into the United States 195 pure Escurial sheep, from 
the celebrated flock of Macheins, in Saxony. Mr. Grove's 
flock was found to be hardy in the climate of New York, 
and he was successful in propagating them. 

In the years 1824-5-6-7, large importations were made 
from Saxony of Escurial sheep into the United States, 
much the largest proportion of which were only grade 
sheep ; and, at this time, only a small proportion of pure 
Escurials are to be found in this country. 

In 1840, Mr. D. C. Collins, of Hartford, Connecticut, im- 
ported 20 ewes and 2 rams from the Rambouillet flock of 
France. 

SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 

Neither the Argali nor the sheep are indigenous to any 
part of South America. But the natives of Chili and Peru 
possessed, from time immemorial, a valuable substitute, in 
the various species of the Lama. These animals strongly 
resemble the camel in their general form, except that they 
have no hump upon their backs ; and hence, they are class- 
ed by naturalists with the Camelidse. There are three spe- 
cies of the Lama — the Guanico, or Lama, the Paco, or Al- 
paca, and Vicuna. 

The Vicunas are not very unlike goats in their appear- 
ance, except that they have no horns, are larger, are of a 
leonine color, or more ruddy. The wool is very fine, re- 
sembling silk, or the fur of the beaver, and is held in high 
estimation. They live on the highest mountains and 
groves, and particularly love those cold regions of solitude, 
called punahs by the Peruvians. Frost and snow do not 
annoy them, but appear to be favorable to them. And such 
is their timidity, that at the sight or wild beasts, they in- 
stantly hurry into inaccessible retreats, and thereby elude 
their pursuits. They were formerly plenty, but are now 
become rare, in consequence of being freely hunted and 
destroyed. 

The Lama, properly so called, and the Alpaca, are found 
in Peru, both in a wild and in a domesticated state. 



104 AMERICAN SHEEP. 

The Lama and Alpaca are both hornless, and strongly 
resemble each other in figure, disposition, and general prop- 
erties. But the Lama, in a wild state, is uniformly of a 
chestnut color ; whereas, the domesticated lamas are of va- 
rious colors. Both the Lama and Alpaca are used as beasts 
of burthen by the natives ; and, for this purpose, are very 
valuable to them. Their obstinacy, when irritated, is well 
known. 

The Alpaca, when full grown, is about thirty-seven inch- 
es high at the tip of the head. It is smaller in stature than 
the Lama; its legs are shorter, with larger muscles, and 
its wool finer and more abundant; but it is less robust in its 
habits, being able to carry a continuous burden of only 50 
or 70 lbs.; and is less used as a beast of burden than the 
Lama. 

The Alpaca weighs, when full grown, from 160 to 200 
lbs. The flesh is said to be wholesome and nutritious : 
the skin may be used for book binding, &c. It yields an- 
nually a fleece of from 10 to 14 lbs., or more. In Peru, 
they are generally shorn every third year, when the wool 
is about 8 inches long. It usually grows three inches in a 
year; but if shorn every year, grows 6 inches or more in 
a year. As the Alpaca does not shed its wool like the 
sheep, it sometimes attains the length of 30 inches. 

Nine-tenths of the wool of the Alpacas is black; but 
some of them are entirely white, or red, or grizzled. It is 
soft and glossy like hair, and is fitted for the production of 
fabrics, differing from all others, and which are of a medi- 
um quality between silk and wool. It is now mingled with 
other materials, in such a manner that while a particular 
dye will affect those, it will leave the Alpaca wool with its 
original black color, thus giving rise to great diversity. 

The Alpacas breed in their third year : their period of 
gestation is nearly twelve months : they usually live ten or 
twelve years. 

Both the tame and wild Lamas and Alpacas are found in 
large herds on the Andes. Here, at an elevation of from 
8,000 to 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, the Peru- 
vian tends his Alpacas and Lamas, allowing them to range 
at the foot of the snowy cliffs, called punahs, or to wander 
on the paramos, or heaths, where they derive subsistence 
from the moss and licheus growing on the rocks, or crop 



SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 105 

the grasses and tender shrubs, which spring up upon the 
flats which are favored with moisture. But its favorite food 
is the yc/io, a sort of rushy grass or reed, which grows in 
rich abundance on its native hills, where, it is said, these 
animals are never known to drink, so long as they can ob- 
tain a sufficiency of green, succulent herbage. 

They are as gentle and docile in their dispositions, and 
are as readily restrained, as the common sheep, with which, 
it is said, they perfectly agree. 

They will adapt themselves to almost any soil and situa- 
tion, and are seldom subject to disease, provided the heat is 
not oppressive, and the air is pure. They will live and 
thrive on the same kinds of food as are eaten by cattle and 
sheep ; but the inferior kinds of browse, grass, or hay, with 
a due proportion of potatoes, or other succulent roots, are 
preferred to rich pasture and farinaceous grains, and are 
more healthy for them. 

From these qualities of the Alpaca, we may infer that it 
can live best in situations so bleak, that the sheep would 
starve or perish ; and that, consequently, the Alpaca would 
be well adapted to the higher mountainous regions of the 
United States; to which localities it may, at some future 
day, be a valuable acquisition, and far more useful than 
the best kinds of long-wooled sheep. 

The Lamas and Alpacas not being adapted to the lower 
hills and plains of South America, the Spaniards introduced 
coarse-wooled sheep into their various territories, both of 
North and South America. 

The soil of the vast plains east of the Andes mountains, 
which are drained by the river La Plata, are very fertile, 
and the climate salubrious both to man and animals. — 
Hence, on those plains, these coarse-wooled sheep multi- 
plied rapidly, and became so plentiful that their carcasses 
were often used as fuel for burning bricks : and very con- 
siderable quantities of coarse wool are exported from Bu- 
enos Ayres. During the years 1841 and 1842, seventeen 
millions pounds of wool were exported from Buenos Ayres. 
to the United States. 

Of late years, the South American farmers have turned 
their attention to the improvement of their flocks by ihe 
importation of fine-wooled sheep from Europe and the Uni- 
ted States. In the years 1 837 and 1 838, 1 1 1 sheep, of the 



106 SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 

average value of $9,60 each, and therefore presumed to 
have been Merino bucks, were exported from the United 
States to Buenos Ayres. 

The largest sheep estate is that of Mr. Sheridan, an Irish 
gentleman, who has 150,000, ail of them from one half to 
full blood Merinos. This estate lies about fifty miles south 
of Buenos Ayres, contains seven leagues square of land, 
and is devoted entirely to the raising of sheep, which are 
divided generally into flocks of 3000 to 5000 each. The 
South Down sheep are the hardiest, and increase the fast- 
est. Don Faustius Xemenes has 60,000 on his estate, 
twenty miles from the city of Buenos Ayres ; but generally, 
the proprietors have crossed with the Saxon breed. 

" The price of government lands there is ten cents per 
acre. It is laid off into "Estancias" a league square, con- 
taining 5,700 acres, English : the face of the country al- 
most a dead level, no timber, but a luxuriant coat of grass. 

" A cottage is erected in the centre of the farm for the 
shepherd, and an ample yard enclosed by driving the trunks 
of the common peach tree into the earth, and wattling the 
interstices with the branches. An estancia will support 
3000 sheep, which is about the size of their flocks. The 
only care they require is to guard them at night, and during 
a storm. They will seldom wander beyond the landmarks 
during the day. At the approach of a storm, they turn 
their backs to leeward, and feed on until turned by their 
keeper to a place of security. The shepherd does not re- 
main with the flock, but at the cottage, having a horse al- 
ready saddled and bridled (ready for a sudden call,) al- 
ways at the door in the daytime." — (Cultivator.) 

The shearing season commences in October, the shear- 
ing being mostly done by women. Some of them will 
shear 15, and even 20 sheep in a day. The level nature 
of the country, and the absence of water, makes it impos- 
sible to wash the wool on the sheep's back. It is therefore 
sold in the dirt. The common wool, after being washed, 
is worth 6 cents the pound only. The soil of these plains 
is impregnated with salt petre ; and this, by many, is sup- 
posed to be the cause why sheep are not subject to foot rot, 
and are little subject to other diseases. The greatest draw- 
back to the production of wool on the pampas, is the small 
burr which adheres to the wool : it is the seed of a species 



AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 107 

of clover, of which they are very fond. The wool from 
Cordova, one of the interior States of the confederation, is 
free from burrs, and is a much cleaner kind. In the year 
1845, it was estimated that there were four millions of 
sheep in the province of Buenos Ayres. 

All that tract of country south of the Parana river, and 
extending west to the Andes, goes by the name of the Pam- 
pas, (or plains,) and is a level country, formed apparently 
by the washings of the great tributaries of the La Plata, 
without a stone, or a rock, or a hill, more than a gentle el- 
evation of a few feet, so level that a carriage can go over 
the fields in any direction, and without a single tree or bush. 
The winter's night is rarely so cold as to form ice of the 
thickness of glass, and snow is never seen. The Ther- 
mometer is never below 30 deg., or above 90 deg. of Fah- 
renheit. The climate is delightful. 

These plains are one vast meadow covered with luxuri- 
ant grasses and flowers, and immense quantities of thistles 
in many parts, which spring up 6 or 8 feet high. But they 
are subject to excessive drouths, which, at times, are so se- 
vere, that large numbers of horses and cattle sometimes 
perish for want of water. Hence, as the sheep can subsist 
on green food, without water, with less difficulty than any 
other domesticated animal, the South American farmers 
have, from this circumstance, a strong inducement to ex- 
tend their sheep husbandry; and as the climate and soil 
are extremely favorable to the production of sheep, we may 
expect that that country will eventually compete strongly 
with every other in the production of wools of superior 
quality. 

AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 

The Island of New Holland comprises much the largest 
proportion of Australia or Australasia, and is situated in the 
Indian Ocean, between the 11th and 39th degrees of south 
latitude. It being surrounded by the Ocean, the climate is 
more temperate than that of the United States, in the same 
latitudes north of the Equator. But it is subject to drouths, 
which, though not very frequent, are more serious, and of 
longer continuance than those of South America. " The 
great drouth (in New Holland) which commenced in 182G, 
did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during 



108 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 

the whole of this period, and for more than six months 
there was not a single shower." — (McCul loch's Com. Dic- 
tionary.) 

Nevertheless, there is generally a supply of food, and 
extensive ranges of pasturage ; and the climate being mild 
and rather dry, that country is extremely well adapted to 
raising heathy sheep and fine wool. 

The sheep not being indigenous to that country, the col- 
onists, at first, supplied themselves with inferior, coarse, 
hairy-wooled sheep, from Bengal. The change of climate 
and pasturage shortly improved these sheep, so that their 
fleeces lost their hairiness. Soon after, South Down and 
Leicester sheep were imported from England. These were 
crossed upon the Bengal sheep, and improved the quality 
of their mutton and fleeces. 

Previous to the year 1800, Merinos were introduced by 
Capt. McAnhur and others ; and at this period there were 
about 6,000 sheep of all kinds in the colony. In 1813, the 
number was 65,000, and in 1828, 563,000.— (Wentworth's 
New South Wales.) In 1843, the export of wool of all 
kinds amounted to 16,226,400 lbs.— (W. C. Spooner.) 

By these data, it must be evident that the increase of 
sheep in Australia, has been extremely rapid, and that the 
fine-wooled sheep of that country must be principally com- 
posed of grade Merino and Saxon sheep, bred by crossing 
the Merino and Saxon with long coarse-wooled sheep. 

Hence, though the best of these grade wools are as fine 
as the pure Merino, and are tough and strong, they are 
longer in the staple, and inferior in softness to pure Escu- 
rial wools. 

As to the management of sheep in Australia, Mr. Cun- 
ningham states in his book, entitled " Two Years in New 
South Wales," that where the country is destitute of tim- 
ber, the sheep are very easily managed, and as many as a 
thousand sheep may be trusted to a single shepherd ; but in 
general they are divided into flocks of about three hundred 
breeding ewes, or four hundred wethers. Every flock has 
a shepherd, who takes his sheep out to graze before sun- 
rise, and brings them in at evening. He keeps always be- 
fore the flock to check the forward among them from run- 
ning onwards, and wearing out the old, sick, and lame; — 
making all thus feed quietly, so as to keep them in good 



AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 109 

condition. In summer he sees, too, that they have water 
during the heat of the day; and in drawing up under a tree 
for shade, when it is too hot for feeding, he passes occa- 
sionally gently among them, spreads them out, and makes 
them take a fresh position, in as small groups as possible, 
under another tree ; because, when they remain too long 
together in one place, they become broken winded. Tt is a 
rule that the sheep should never remain in one spot so long 
as to paddle the ground much with their feet ; and hence, 
in riding round your sheep stations, you have something 
whereby to judge whether or not your instructions are at- 
tended to. The shepherd takes out his victuals with him, 
and is required to be on the alert all day long, to prevent 
the sheep from being lost in the woods, or wild dogs from 
pouncing in among them. 

" These flocks are always penned together under the 
charge of a watchman, who counts each in regularly at 
night, and the shepherds again count them out in the morn- 
ing ; so that they form a regular check on each other, and 
prevent losses from carelessness or depredation. The 
watchman has a small weather-proof watch box to sleep in, 
and is assisted by a watch dog; he keeps up a good fire, 
which generally deters all native or wild dogs from ap- 
proaching the fold. The hurdles are made of light swamp 
oak, iron bark, or gum, measuring seven feet long, with 
five bars, so close together that a young lamb cannot creep 
through. They are shifted to fresh ground daily, being 
sloped outward, and propped together by means of forked 
stakes, driving a stake through between the bars here and 
there, to keep the hurdles firm, and prevent the wind from 
blowing them over. Bells are attached to the necks of the 
stoutest leaders, to keep the flock together, and give warn- 
ing of any tiding going wrong within the fold. 

*' The breeding season is, in some instances, at the com- 
mencement of summer; in others, at the commencement 
of winter ; but, in general, it is in March or April, (the Aus- 
tralian autumn,) the rams having been put to the ewes in 
October. This deviation from our practice is owing, ac- 
cording to Mr. Cunningham, to the breeders finding that 
the pasture is particularly good in the autumn, from a sort 
of second spring taking place ; while the lambs stand the 



110 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 

cold better than the heat, and are less annoyed by the gad 
flies." 

Sheep shearing takes place at the beginning of their 
summer. The usual plan of washing is by rinsing them in 
streams ; but of late it has become customary with some 
proprietors to wash them with a spout. But it is not likely 
that this plan will be generally adopted, as it requires par- 
ticular facilities with regard to water, and is, besides, apian 
fraught with danger to the sheep. It ought to be kept in 
mind that a stream of water playing on the body, produces 
a very stunning {chilling) effect, which may destroy life in 
an inconsiderable time, and has, in this way, been often 
employed for putting criminals to death." — (Blacklock.) 

** The average weight of the fleeces of the improved 
breeds, is from two to two and a half pounds. 

" The range of pasture is so extensive that the sheep are 
liable to comparatively few diseases. The dryness of the 
climate keeps the fleece always in so comfortable a state, 
that they are almost never struck by the fly, which always 
deposits its eggs on the moistest part of the skin," {or wool.) 

Notwithstanding the equilibrity and mildness of the cli- 
mate, bad seasons occasionally occur, and lead to sickness 
among the flocks ; and they are liable to be pastured on im- 
proper grounds, by which they become affected with diar- 
rhea, braxy, rot, foot rot, &c, as in other countries. 

That portion of the work of Mr. W. E. Spooner which 
treats of the structure and physiology of the sheep, and 
which is included within the ten next sections, is very lu- 
cid and satisfactory upon the various subjects therein treat- 
ed, so far as it extends, and, therefore, is inserted with 
some few corrections and additions. 






STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 1 1 1 



SECTION XIV. 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

The body of the sheep is composed of solids and fluids. 
The organization of the frame is effected by means of the 
solids; they surround and contain the fluids ; at least one 
half of the animal system being composed of water. 

Late anatomists consider that animals are composed of 
three forms of tissues, which they have denominated the 
fibrous, the lamellar, and the globular. The two former 
are exemplified in the structure of the cellular substance, 
which composes the greatest proportion of the animal fab- 
ric : the fibrous is characteristic of the muscular and liga- 
mentous structures : the fibrous, united with the lamellar, 
is exhibited in the texture of the glands, and in the medul- 
lary substance of the nervous system ; and the globular is 
shown in the composition of the chyle, the blood, and sev- 
eral of the secretions. These several textures, combined 
together in different proportions, compose the various or- 
gans of the body. 

To give support to the animal frame, and afford fixed ob- 
jects for the attachments of the various parts, is the use of 
the skeleton, which, in the sheep, is composed of nearly 
two hundred bones of various sizes and shapes. These 
■ bones, in order to admit of motion, are connected, one to 
another, by means of strong bands, called ligaments ; the 
ends of the bones being constructed in various ways, so as 
to admit of motion. In many we have the form of the 
hinge ; in others, that of a ball and socket. 

The motion of the*limbs is effected by means of the mus- 
cles or flesh, which, although to a casual observer appear- 
ing as a homogeneous mass, is really separable into a great 
number of distinct bodies, of various forms and sizes. — 
These muscles have commonly two separate attachments, 
which are usually bones, and by contracting in length, they 
bring these points ,of attachment nearer to each other. — 
Muscles are composed of a vast number of fibres, which 
on being acted upon by the nervous influence, diminish in 
length and increase in bulk, and thereby approximate the 
objects to which they are attached. They are usually fas- 



112 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

tened to bones by means of a strong white substance, call- 
ed tendon, which, however, possesses in itself no power of 
contraction, but merely communicates the contractile force 
to the object to be acted upon. Where the two objects of 
attachments are distant from each other, the greater por- 
tion of the distance is occupied by the tendons, the advan- 
tage of which is owing to their diminished size in propor- 
tion to their strength. Thus we find the legs of the sheep 
below the knee are light and slender, from the absence of 
muscular and the substitution of tendinous substance. 

The greater part of the muscles are voluntary, being un- 
der the influence of the mind ; but some are involuntary, 
such as the heart and the diaphraghm. Muscles are sup- 
plied with vessels of various kinds, such as arteries for 
their nourishment, and veins for the return of the blood, 
after this purpose is effected. They have likewise nerves, 
which are the medium of sensation, and also communicates 
to them the mandates of the will. 

These nerves proceed either from the brain or spinal 
cord ; the brain being the fountain of sensation, and the 
residence of the mind. 

The brain is a soft pulpy substance contained within the 
head, and the spinal cord is somewhat similar in structure, 
and extends from the brain to the tail, through a hole in the 
bones which form the spinal column. 

The body is divided into two principal cavities, the chest 
and the abdomen, which are separated by a muscular parti- 
tion, called the diaphraghm. The former contains the 
heart and lungs, whose uses are principally to purify and 
distribute the blood, by means of the respiration and the cir- 
culation ; and the latter contains the stomach and bowels, 
in which the functions of digestion are carried on, besides 
several important glands, such as the liver, kidneys, and 
-pancreas, and other organs. Both the small and large in- 
testines are fastened to the spine by means of a strong 
membrane, called the mesentery, which, besides veins and 
arteries, is furnished with a vast number of small vessels, 
called lacieals. These lacteals open into the intestines, 
and there absorb the nutritious part of the food, which is a 
milky fluid, called the chyle, and convey it to a vessel run- 
ning along the course of the spine, which vessel empties it- 
self, near the heart, into the circulating system. Thus, by 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 1 13 

these means, the blood becomes enriched with nutriment, 
and is thus enabled to supply the constant waste which pas- 
ses from the system. 

The blood, being furnished with nutriment, requires to be 
purified before it is fit for circulation. For this purpose, it 
passes into the right side of the heart, by the muscular con- 
traction of which, it is sent to the lungs, where it is expo- 
sed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it is changed 
from a dark to a light red color, and being freed from im- 
purities, it enters the left side of the heart, and from thence 
is sent, by means of the arteries, to all parts of the body, 
supplying every part with nourishment, and furnishing each 
of the glands of the body with materials for the secreiion of 
their peculiar fluids. Thus the salivary glands separate 
the saliva from the blood ; the pancreas, a juice somewhat 
similar; the testicles, the semen; and the kidneys, the 
urine. The urine being secreted by the kidneys, is convey- 
ed by two small tubes into the bladder, whence it is excre- 
ted from the body. 

The liver separates the bile from the dark impure blood 
which is conveyed to it by a large vein. 

The contents of the bowels are passed onwards by their 
vermicular motion, and after the nutriment is extracted 
from them, are excreted from the body generally in a sol- 
id form. 

The cellular membrane is a very elastic subject, and en- 
tors very largely into the composition of the body ; it con- 
nects the various glands together, forms frequently a cover-v 
ing for the muscles, as well as for various vessels, and ex- 
ists in the form of cells, which have communication with 
each other. 

The adipose membrane is found in various parts of the 
body, and secretes the fat, which is deposited in a liquid 
form, and in small circumscribed bags. The fat thus con- 
tained, often performs the important office of affording a 
cushion for parts that would otherwise be exposed to inju- 
ry ; thus the socket of the eye ie abundantly furnished with 
this material. 

There are two other important membranes which are ex- 
tensively found in animal bodies : they are the serous and 
mucus membranes. Whenever an internal part has an exter- 
nal opening, we find that it is furnished with a mucus men> 



114 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEE't. 

brane, which secretes mucus for its protection ; but when 
the cavity has no external opening, then it is lined with a 
serous membrane, which secretes a thin watery fluid, to lu- 
bricate the parts, and preserve them from injury by fric- 
tion. Thus, from the entrance of the mouth and nostrils 
to the anus, throughout the whole internal surface of the 
bowels, a mucous membrane exists, by which the fluid is 
secreted, the nature of which gives a name to the mem- 
brane, and which protects it from injury, either by the ex- 
ternal air, or by the contents of the bowels. The bladder 
and urinary organs are similarly lined. 

On the other hand, the cavity of the chest and abdomen, 
with their contents, as well as the internal surface of the 
blood vessels, are furnished with a serous membrane, which 
secretes a watery humor. These different membranes are 
frequently the seat of disease, and are subject to severe and 
dangerous inflammation. 

The admirable manner in which the various organs are 
packed away in their proper cavities, is worthy of particu- 
lar notice. The lungs, heart, and contents of the abdomen, 
are so shaped and disposed, that while each organ has full 
room for the performance of its functions, there is no va- 
cant space whatever. — (Spooner.) 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEJ?. 



115 



SECTION XV. 




SKELETON OF THE SHEEP 



THE HEAD. 

1. The intermaxillary bone. 

2. The nasal bones. 

3. The upper jaw. 

4. The union of the nasal and upper 
jaw bones. 

5. The union of the molar and lach- 
rymal bones. 

6. The orbits of the eye. 

7. The frontal bone. 

9. The lower jaw. 

10. The incisor teeth, or nippers. 

11. The molars, or grinders. 

THE TRUNK. 

1 . 1. The ligament of the neck sup- 
porting the head. 

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The seven ver- 
tabras, or bones of the neck. 

1 — 13. The thirteen vertabrae, or 
bones of the back. 

1 — 6. The six vertabras, of the loins. 

7. The sacral bone. 



THE FORE LEG. 

1. The scapula or shoulder blade. 

2. The humerus, bone of the arm. 
or lower part of the shoulder, 

3. The radius, or bone of the 
fore arm. 

4. The ulna, or elbow. 

5. The knee with its different bones. 

6. The metacarpal or shank bones 
— the larger bones of the leg. 

7. A rudiment of the smaller meta- 
carpal. 

One of the sessamoid bones. 

9. The first two bones of the foot — 
the pasterns. 

10. The proper bones of the foot. 

THE HIND LEG. 

1. The thigh bone. 

2. The stine joint and its bone — the 
patella. 

3. The tibia or bone of the upper 
part of the leg. 



116 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 



8. The bones of the tail, varying in 
different breeds from twelve to 
twenty -one. 

9. The haunch and pelvis. 

1 — 8. The eight true ribs with their 

cartilages. 
9 — 13. The five false ribs, or those 

that are not attached to the breast 

bone. 
14. The breast bone. 



The point of the hock. 

The other bones of the hock. 



'4. 
5. 

6. The metatarsal bones, or bones 
of the hind leg. 

7. Rudiment of the small metatar- 
sal. 

8. A sessamoid bone. 

9. The first two bones of the foot — 
the pasterns. 

10. The proper bone of the foot. 



The skeleton of animal bodies is formed of bone, a sub- 
stance possessing firmness and stability for the attachment 
of muscles, the protection of the vital organs, and the sup- 
port of the softer parts. It is composed of animal matter 
and earthy salts ; the former consisting of cartilage, gela- 
tine, and fat, or marrow ; and the latter of phosphat of lime 
in considerable proportion, with a small portion of carbonat 
of lime, and other salts. The cartilage of bonesis formed 
before the earthy matter, and constitutes the nidus, in which 
the latter is deposited. Bones can be freed from their 
earthy portion, by immersion in an acid, by which process 
the gelatine is also dissolved, and pure cartilage is left, 
which is elastic, but retains the original figure of the bone. 
On the other hand, bones, by exposure to great heat, are 
deprived of the animal substance, and the earthy part re- 
mains. 

The use of the marrow is, more particularly, to prevent 
the too great dryness and brittleness of bones. To the an- 
imal portion of their composition, they are indebted for 
their shape, and what degree of elasticity they possess, and 
from the earthy portion they derive the important qualities 
of strength and durability. 

Every bone is covered by a membrane called the perios- 
teum, which also lines the internal cavities, and secretes 
the marrow. Its use is to circumscribe the form of bones, 
and protect them by its tenseness, as well as to afford the 
medium whereby they are furnished with their vessels. — 
The shape of particular bones intimately corresponds to 
the purpose for which they are intended ; where, for the 
purpose of protection, we find them fiat, and where, for the 
purpose of motion, long and cylindrical, as in the extremi- 
ties.-— (Spooner.) 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 



117 



THE BONES OF THE HEA.D. 

In order to afford space for the attachment or origin of 
the horns, the frontal bones project, both forward and later- 
ally, which gives the peculiar breadth of forehead and 
prominence of the eye to the sheep. This form of the up- 
per part of the face is retained in breeds from which the 
horn has long ago disappeared. The breeds without horns 
are denominated polled sheep. 




THE SKULL OF A POLLED SHEEP. 

j. The occipital bone depressed ou t of the 
reach of danger. 

2. The parietal bones, the suture ha ving dis- 
appeared, and also out of danger. 

3. The squamous portions ot the temporal 
bones — the buttress of the arch of the skull. 

4. The meatus auditorious — or bony opening 
into the ear, 

5. The Frontal bones. 

6. The openings through which blood vessels 
pass to supply the forehead. 

7. The bony orbits of the eye. 

8. The zygomatic or molar bones. 

9. The lachrymal bones, very much develop- 
ed. 

10. The bones of the nose. 

11. The upper jaw bone. 

12. The foramen, through which the nerves 
and blood vessels proceed to supply the low- 
er part of the face. 

13. The nasal processes of the intermaxillary 
bones. 

14. The pelatine processes. 

15. The intermaxillary bone, supporting the 
cartilaginous pad, instead of containing teeth. 

The bones of the skull are thus disposed of in the sheep : 
the frontal bones occupy the whole of the broad expanse 
on the top of the head, extending from eye to eye. (See 
fig. 5.) They are prolonged as far below the eye as above 
it, encroaching upon and materially shortening the nasal 
bones (10.10.). Above, they reach much to the parietal 
bones (fig. 2.) ; but before they arrive at this point, the 
head takes a sudden inclination downward, and a little of 
the posterior part of the frontal bones — that which is most 
concerned in covering the brain — is out of danger. 

The concussion is tremendous when these animals rush 
against each other in good earnest; but from the peculiar 
form and strength of the bones which come in contact here, 



118 STRUCTURE GF THE SHEEP. 

and the depression of ihe brain far below, serious mischief 
is seldom effected. The horn is occasionally broken ; the 
ribs, the limbs, may sometimes be fractured ; at the rutting 
season, the contest may end only with the death of one 
of the combatants ; but it is comparatively seldom that the 
skull is fatally injured. 

The parietal bones of the sheep (fig. 2.), although not 
elevated to the summit of the arch, as in the horse, yet re- 
sume the function of which they are deprived in cattle. — 
They constitute an important part of the posterior and slant- 
ing division of the skull, and have the same dense and firm 
structure which they possess in the horse. At an early pe- 
riod of the life of the animal, they are formed, as in the 
horse and cattle, of two distinct bones ; but the suture soon 
disappears in the sheep, and they become one continuous 
bony arch over the greater part of the brain. Considera- 
ble strength is necessary here, in order to sustain or neu- 
tralize those violent concussions which may occasionally 
be propagated from the frontal bones above. — (Youatt.) 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SIZE OF THE HEAD. 

The head of the sheep constitutes one of the principal 
points by which his quality and profitableness [as a mutton 
sheep'] may be judged of. Compared with his general size* 
it should be small, and, particularly, not wide between the 
eyes : too great width of forehead is an invariable proof of 
inaptitude to fatten, at least externally. The sheep with a 
large head will be a favorite with the butcher, because, in 
proportion to the slowness with which he gets into condi- 
tion, will be the accumulation of fat within, even if there 
was no natural tendency to produce tallow : in other words, 
there will be more profit to himself (the butcher), at the ex- 
pense of the grazier and consumer. The head should be 
small, thin, and short. It is possible, yet not probable, that 
this may be carried to too great an extent ; but that head 
must be disproportionably small, which can be considered 
as a proof of too great delicacy of constitution. There is 
considerable danger in lambing when the head of the sheep 
is large. — (Youatt.) 

THE BONES OF THE BODY. 

The neck is formed by seven bones, which, with the ex- 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 119 

ception of the two first, are very much alike. The first is 
connected with the occipital, or bone of the skull, with 
which it forms a joint possessing much motion in a vertical 
direction. In the human head it is termed the atlas, from 
its supporting the head. It forms a joint behind with the 
dentata, as the second bone is termed, from its having in 
the front part a process like a tooth, which, however, af- 
fords the head considerable lateral motion. All the bones 
of the neck are extremely irregular in shape. They all 
possess a large hole through the centre for the passage of 
the spinal marrow, and small ones at the sides for the exit 
of nerves and arteries. They have also projections on 
each side and above, for the attachment of muscles ; and 
each one forms a joint, both before and behind, which af- 
fords that great flexibility to the neck, which most animals 
possess. 

The back, or chine, is composed of separate bones, cal- 
led vertebra, of which there are thirteen belonging to the 
back alone. They all possess, like those of the neck, a 
a hole through the centre, for the passage of the spinal cord, 
as well as a small one at the side, for the exit of the nerves. 
The superior projection, or processes, are much higher 
than those of the neck, but considerably shorter than we 
find in the horse; and thus, we have high withers in this 
animal, and low ones in the sheep ; and they are also shor- 
ter in the improved breeds than in the wilder races — a 
channel between the shoulders and along the back being 
justly regarded as a sign of a disposition to fatten. These 
processes serve for the attachment of muscles, as well of a 
strong elastic substance, which is attached to all the bones 
of the neck, and also to the occiput, and serves to support 
the head, and thus relieves the muscles to a great extent. 

The ribs are attached to the vertebrae by means of a joint 
— one rib is joined to two vertebrse, and vice versa, thus af- 
fording the ribs a certain extent of motion. There are thir- 
teen ribs on each side, eight true and five false : the former 
are attached to the sternum, or breast bone, and the latter 
are merely joined to the former at the lower parts, which is 
formed of cartilage. The ribs should spring from the back 
bone as horizontally as possible, as thereby the rotundity of 
the frame is increased. 

The loins are formed by five bones, which partly resem- 



120 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

ble the bones of the back ; but instead of ribs springing 
from the sides, there are fixed bony processes, several inch- 
es in length, which afford a protection or roof for the abdo- 
men. These processes, in a well formed sheep, should be 
long and horizontal. 

After the loins, the spine continues in the sacrum, which, 
in the lamb, is composed of separate pieces, but is consoli- 
dated into one bone in the sheep. This bone is perforated 
for the passage of the spinal cord, which, however, dimin- 
ishes in size, and terminates at the end of the sacrum, in 
several nerves which run to the tail. The bones of the tail 
are numerous, but are not perforated. — (Spooner.) 

THE BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 

The joints, or articulations of the extremities, are the 
same as those of the horse, but the limbs, on reaching the 
fetlock joint, become divided, and the four bones, situated 
below the fetlock, are consequently double. The scapula, 
or blade-bone, is similar in shape to that of the horse, hav- 
ing a spine or ridge down its middle, for the attachment of 
muscles; but in sheep, the bone is not so long in propor- 
tion to its width. It is attached to the ribs by muscular 
substance, by means of which the body is suspended, or 
hung, like a carriage, between the fore legs, and concussion 
is thereby materially diminished. 

From the more circular shape of the ribs, the shoulder 
blades are attached to them with much less mechanical ad- 
vantage, as far as the speed is concerned. They are pla- 
ced wider apart, both above and below, but particularly at 
their lower parts, so that the limbs spread open, at a great- 
er angle, much more like a pair of compasses, than do 
those of the horse, and even the ox, thus giving the sheep 
that rolling walk so peculiar to that animal, and so disad- 
vantageous with regard to speed. 

The humerus, or shoulder bone, strong and cylindrical, 
forms, with the blade above, the shoulder joint, the action 
of which, with that of the elbow-joint below, is much more 
limited ihan that of the horse. 

The radius, or bone of the fore arm, is comparatively 
shorter than that of the horse ; and we find that it is always 
long in animals of speed, and short where speed is not re- 
quired. This bone is also strong and cylindrical. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 121 

The ulna, or bone which forms the elbow, does not sup- 
port the weight, but serves for the attachment of the pow- 
erful muscles so conspicuous in a shoulder of mutton, and 
which are generally divided by the first cut. For this pur- 
pose, it is attached to the radius, and rises above the elbow 
joint, the back of which it forms, but does not reach the 
knee. This joint, the carpus, is composed of seven bones, 
arranged in two rows, the upper of which articulates with 
the radius, and the lower with the cannon, or metacarpus. 

The metacarpus, or shank, much resembles that of the 
horse, until it reaches the fetlock, where it is to some little 
extent cloven, so as to articulate with the double arrange- 
ment of the bones below. Instead of the two small meta- 
carpal or splent bones that we find in the horse, there is 
merely one, and that of small extent and use. 

The small bones, situated at the back of the fetlock, call- 
ed the sesamoids, and which serve as levers for the attach- 
ment of ligaments, and the action of the sinews, are double 
those of the horse, being four in number. 

The bones below the fetlock, viz., the large pastern, or 
os suffraginis, the small pastern, or os coronm, the os pedis, 
or coffin bone, and the navicular bone, are all double, and 
like the same parts in the ox, somewhat resemble the bones 
of the horse sawn in two. 

All these joints have less extent of motion than we find 
in the horse, and the bones, therefore, present a more up- 
right appearance. — (Spooner.) 

THE HIND EXTREMITIES. 

The haunch is formed by three bones in the, young sub- 
ject, but these bones soon become consolidated into one, and 
are called the pelvis, or basin, withinw Inch is situated the 
bladder and parts of the organs of generation. Viewing 
this bone from below it, it appears pretty nearly circular 
within, but externally, the circle is broken by various irreg- 
ular processes, two of which project upwards on each side 
of the spine, which lies between them; these two other 
bones extend backward below the tail, and are called haunch 
bones, and two project laterally, and are termed hips. — 
These bones project but little in a well formed sheep, being 
altegether clothed with flesh and fat. 

The bones of the pelvis extend downwards and back- 



122 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

wards from the spine, and toward the inferior part form on 
each side a deep cap or socket, into which fits the upper 
thigh bone, which is formed like a ball, so as to fit into the 
socket. 

The thigh bone, or foemur, extends forward, and irrela- 
tively longer in the sheep than in the horse. It is the flesh 
surrounding this bone which composes the bulk of a leg of 
mutton. Its lower part forms, with the tibia below, the sti- 
fle joint, which is singular, from having two cartilaginous 
bodies within it ; and is protected in front by a small bone 
called the patella, or knee-pan, which bone becomes a sort 
of pulley, receiving the insertions of the very strong mus- 
cles above, and is attached below to the tibia by strong lig- 
aments. 

The tibia, or leg-bone, runs backward from the stifle, 
and is not so long in proportion as in the horse. It corres- 
ponds to the radius in the fore extremity, and it forms the 
upper part of the hock joint. 

This joint is composed of six bones, arranged in rows so 
as to form three articulations, but motion is confined to that 
formed by the astralagus, or knuckle bone, and the tibia. 
The other bones serve as cushions to diminish concussions, 
with the exception of the os calc:s y situated at the back, 
which acts as a lever, receiving the insertions of the pow- 
erful muscles which straighten the hock. This bone is 
much shorter than in the horse, speed not being required. 
The bones below the hock correspond with those found be- 
low the knee in the fore extremity. 

BIFLEX CANAL. 

The large pastern-bones are not connected together by 
ligamentous substance, and it is not till the pastern-joint, 
that the foot becomes exteriorly disunited. At the situation 
of this joint in front, we can detect a small opening suffi- 
ciently large to admit a small probe. This is the entrance 
of a small canal, which presently enlarges, and passes first 
downwards, and then winds round in a semi-circular direc- 
tion, ending in a sort of cut de sac. On cutting into this 
canal, it appears to be a duplication of its skin. Its inter- 
nal surface is lined with hair, and there is found a consid- 
erable of detached hair, mixed with an oily secretion in the 
canal, secreted by various small glands which empty into 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 123 

this cul de sac. The hair is, no doubt, excreted from the 
internal surface, and which, from the smallness of the open- 
ing, cannot escape, or rather, is detained for a useful pur- 
pose. The use of this canal thus stuffed with hair, is self- 
evident. The motion possessed by the pastern-joint is so 
great as to threaten to chafe the skin, by the friction of one 
side against the other. It is to prevent, or ward off this 
friction, that these bifiex canals, or rather, hair-stuffed cush- 
ions, are provided ; and also, to secrete an oily fluid which 
serves to lubricate the parts between the hoofs. This part 
occasionally surfers from the insinuation of dirt and sand, 
and is subject to inflammation and ulceration, which some- 
times prove very troublesome. 

HORNS AND HOOFS, 

The horns of sheep are composed of two distinct parts : 
one is the bony part, which is a highly vascular prolonga- 
tion of the frontal bone of the upper part of the head. This 
part is covered over by a portion of the vera cutis, or true 
skin, which runs under the other, or outward part of the 
horn. This outward part of the horn, which is the part 
usually called horn, is an elastic sheath of agglutinated 
hairs or filaments, which are secreted from the skin which 
covers the bony part of the horn, and which serves to de- 
fend the parts underneath from external injury. This 
sheath, at its base, is thin, being composed of only one lay- 
er of filaments. Farther on in its growth, additional fila- 
ments are continually added, underneath the layer first 
formed, so as to increase the thickness. The sheath grows 
faster than the bony part, and is gradually crowded off 
from it, and, beyond the bony part, becomes solid, in con- 
sequence of the additional filaments which are added. The 
external filaments may be distinctly seen by the naked eye. 

The fleece, or covering of the sheep, consists of hair or 
wool, or both; and the form of the horn is always in uni- 
son with the quality of the fleece. Thus, if a sheep is cov- 
ered with wool which has many spiral curves, as the Me- 
rino, its horns will be spiral; but if the wool or hair is 
straight, as on the WalUchian sheep, the form of the horns 
will correspond. 

The growth of horns on the sheep appears to be subject 
to a lunar influence. Frequently, twelve distinct rings, or 



124 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

protuberances, are formed, in a corresponding number of 
lunar months of the year, particularly in the third year 
of their growth, when the growth of horns is most active. 
This may be ascertained by marking the horns, in the sum- 
mer of their third year, at which time this fact appears 
most distinctly. 

The horny part of t,he hoof consists of the crust, or true- 
horn, and the sole. Both the sole and the horny part are 
secreted from the vera cutis, or true skin, which runs un- 
der and around the bones of the feet. The horse is thin- 
nest at its uppermost edge, and is increased in thickness by 
additional filaments as it grows downward, and becomes 
solid at the toes, in the same manner as the horns of the 
head; so that the sole and crust form a defence to the skin 
and bones of the feet. 

Sometimes a small horn is secreted from the skin of the 
ear of the sheep. This circumstance shows that it is the 
skin alone which secretes horn from the animal system. 

By the appendix, it will be seen that according to the 
analysis of Schever, the composition of wool, hair, and 
horns, is similar ; and their odor, when burned, is similar; 
but they differ in the proportions of their component parts. 



SECTION XVI. 
THE MUSCLES, OR FLESH. 

Although the shape of the body depends materially on 
that of the skeleton, so that if the latter is any wise faulty, 
the former will not be perfect ; yet there is a very great 
contrast between the appearance of the skeleton, and that 
of the body itself, of which it forms a part. \V hilst the for- 
mer is angular and extremely irregular, the latter is round 
and smooth ; so that, though the good shape of the animal 
depends on the skeleton, yet it requires the eye of the anat- 
omist to detect, in the conformation of the latter, the good 
points which, in the body itself, are readily observed. 

The bulk of the body is formed of flesh or muscles. — 
Their principal use, when living, is to effect the movement 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. J 25 

of the limbs : when dead, to afford nutriment to man. The 
motion of the body is occasioned by the contraction of the 
muscles, which, being fastened to different bones, draw 
these bones towards each other ; and thus, the limbs are 
bent whenever particular muscles shorten or contract. — 
These muscles which bend the limbs, are called the flex- 
ors; whilst an opposite set, which straighen them again, 
are denominated the extensors; the latter, however, are 
mostly smaller and weaker than the former. The size and 
shape of muscles are very diversified, some being so min- 
ute as to he scarcely visible, as those within the ear; whilst 
others, namely, those of the loins and buttocks, are large 
enough to afford a feast to several persons; some muscles 
are thin, and spread out like a fan ; others are thick and 
bulky ; some are extremely short ; others are long and cyl- 
indrical. Muscles are furnished with nerves both of mo- 
tion and sensation : the former convey the mandates of the 
will, and are thus the cause of motion : the latter commu- 
nicate the sense of feeling, and are the medium both of 
pleasure and pain ; but the flesh possesses much less feel- 
ing than the skin. The muscles are composed of fibres, 
and are bound together by cellular membrane, and they 
are, in sheep, mostly clothed with fat, which is also depos- 
ited amongst the fibres. It is the capability of containing 
this fat, and the abundance and laxity of the membrane 
containing it, which distinguishes a sheep of a good, from 
one of a bad breed, and gives to the former that softness 
and elasticity, or resiliency, which is felt on handling it, 
even when poor. The former sheep, too, possesses large 
muscles, particularly at those parts where the meat is most 
esteemed. Thus, the loins of a good sheep are broad, and 
abundantly covered with flesh and fat, and so likewise are 
the buttocks and shoulders, whilst the head and neck are 
small. The musctes that are in most constant use, are 
more interlaced with tendinous fibre, and, consequently, 
are much less tender, as meat, than those which are less 
actively engaged. The muscles of the lower part of the 
legs, between the knees and hocks and the joints above, as 
well as those of the neck and head, are instances of the 
former kind : whilst the muscles of the loins, and more 
particularly those within the pelvis, are examples of the 
latter, and afford the most tender meat in the body. 



126 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

SECTION XVII. 

THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 

The brain, the seat of the mind, and the fountain of sen- 
sation, is a soft body, situated in a cavity of the skull, called 
the cranium. In man, it occupies by far the greater por- 
tion of the skull ; but in the sheep, from its much smaller 
size, and from the large space devoted to the face, its cavi- 
ty, the cranium is much the smaller part. It is closely in- 
vested by a membrane called the pia mater, whilst the 
cranium is lined by a firm, strong membrane, called the 
dura mater. Between these, there is another delicate 
membrane called the tunica arachnoides. The dura ma- 
ter, by its duplications, forms several processes and sinu- 
ses : the former, by descending between its divisions, serves 
to secure the brain in its position, and the latter acts as res- 
ervoirs for the venous blood, thus preventing the brain 
from being injured by any temporary impediment in its 
passage. 

The pia mater closaly embraces the brain, and dips into 
its convolutions. The brain consists of three parts — the 
cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. 

The cerebrum is considerably the largest, and is divided 
into two hemispheres, each of which corresponds with its 
fellow. 

On cutting into the cerebrum, we find that it consists of 
two portions — the medullary, or white, and the grey, or 
costical part. The latter is mostly situated towards the 
centre, but both appear to run into each other. Within 
the hemispheres, there appear to be various cavities, canals, 
and membranes, which, in this work, it is unnecessary to 
describe. 

Tha cerebellum, or little brain, is situated behind the cer- 
ebrum, than which it is considerably smaller. It appears to 
consist of medullary and costical subbstance mingled to- 
gether. 

The medulla oblongata, the smallest division, is situated 
at the base of. the brain. It is medullary in its structure, 
and gives origin to the greater part of the cranial nerves. 
It is by far the most sensible part of the brain ; for whilst 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 127 

portions of the cerebrum have been cut away, in some ani- 
mals, without giving any apparent pain, the least pressure 
on the medulla is productive of injury or death. The brain 
is largely supplied, by means of the carotid arteries, with 
blood, which is returned to the heart by the jugular veins. 

The spinal marrow may be considered as the continua- 
tion of the brain, running from the medulla oblongata, 
throughout the spinal canal, to the tail. It is enveloped by 
the same membranes as the brain, and continues to the sa- 
crum, where it ends in several nervous cords. Its form is 
cylindrical, and it has been found to consist of six bands, 
in the centre of which there is a sort of canal. The nerves 
arising from the brain and spinal cord, in sheep, are forty 
pair, ten of which proceed from the brain, and the remain- 
der from the cord, and are, therefore, called the spinal 
nerves. These forty pair of nerves include all the nerves 
of sensation and motion. 

On examining a nerve, we find that it consists of a vast 
number of white filaments, each having its particular cov- 
ering, and yet bound together and invested by membrane. 
— (Spooner.) 

There are certain cavities in the brain which particularly 
deserve notice. They are called ventricles, and are four 
in number. They are very irregularly shaped cavities, sit- 
uated in the medullery poition of the brain ; and their sur- 
faces are kept constantly moistened with a fluid, which 
sometimes collects in too great quantities, and forms one 
species of tbe disease called sturdy. — (McKenzie.) 



128 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

ORGANS OF MASTICATION. 
Fig.l. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 







Fig. 4. 



Fiff. 5. 



" Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or 
ridges of the palate thicken, as they approach the fore part 
of the mouth ; there, also, the dense, fibrous, elastic mat- 
ter, of which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and 
forms a cushion or bed, that covers the converse extremity 
of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper inci- 
sor, or cutting-teeth, and partially discharges their func- 
tions. The herbage is firmty held between the front teeth 
in the lower jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and 
partly torn off. The rolling motion of the head is proof of 
this fact. The teeth of the sheep are the same in number 
as in the mouth of the ox. There are eight incisor, or cut- 
ting-teeth, in the fore part of the lower jaw, and six molar 
teeth in each jaw above and below, and on either side. — 
The incisors are more admirably adapted for grazing than 
in the ox. The sheep bites closer and gathers nourish- 
ment where the ox would be unable to crop a single 
blade. The sheep, by his close bite, not only loosens the 
roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by cut- 
ting off the short suckers and sproutings — a wise provision 
of Nature — causes the plant to throw out fresh, and more 
numerous and stronger ones, and thus improves and increa- 
ses the value of the crop. Nothing will more expeditiously. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 129 

or more effectually make a thick permanent pasture, than 
its being occasionally and closely eaten down by sheep. 

In order to enable the sheep to bite thus close, the upper 
lip is deeply divided, and free from hair about the centre 
of it. The part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as 
in other animals, covered with enamel, to enable it to bear 
and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the enamel, on the 
upper part, rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quar- 
ter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, 
and a concave within, forms a little scoop, or gouge, of 
wonderful execution. 

" The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either with- 
out incisor teeth, or it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed 
to each other, and before the animal is a month old, it has 
the whole of the eight. They continue to grow with its 
growth until it is about fourteen or sixteen months old. In 
the accompanying cut, fig. 1, will give a fair representation 
of the mouth of a sheep at this age. Then, with the same 
previous process of diminution as in cattle, or carried to a 
still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and are 
replaced by new ones, which attain their full growth when 
the sheep are two years old, Fig, 2 gives a delineation of 
the mouth at that age. 

Between two and three years old, the next two incisors 
are shed ; and when the sheep is actually three years old, 
the four central teeth are fully grown (see fig. 3.); at four 
years old, it has six teeth fully grown (see fig. 4.) ; and at 
five years old, all the teeth are perfectly developed (see 
fig. 5.). 

In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often 
be very considerable difference, in the teeth of the hogs, or 
one shears ; in some measure to be accounted for by a dif- 
ference in the time of lambing, and, likewise, by the gen- 
eral health and vigor of the animal. There will also be a 
material difference in different flocks, attributable to the 
good or bad keep which they have had. Those fed on 
good land, or otherwise well kept, will take the start of oth- 
ers that have been half starved, and renew their teeth some 
months sooner than these. There are, however, irregular- 
ities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be accounted 
for by either of these circumstances ; in fact, not to be ac- 



130 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

counted for by any known circumstance relating to the 
breed or the keep of the sheep. 

The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasion- 
ally observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any 
deficiency or change of food, may sometimes be justly at- 
tributed to the tenderness of the mouth, when the perma- 
nent teeth are protruding through the gums. 

After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are ful- 
ly grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. 
In most cases the teeth remain sound for one or two years, 
and then, either on account of the hard work in which they 
have been employed, or from the natural effect of age, 
they begin to loosen and fall out ; or, by reason of their nat- 
ural slenderness, they are broken off. Causes, of which 
the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no con- 
trol, will sometimes hasten the loss of teeth. One thing, 
however, is certain — that close feeding, causing additional 
exercise of the teeth, does wear them down ; and that the 
sheep of the farmers, who stock unusually and unreasona- 
bly hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. — 
(Youatt.) 

The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which 
are composed of skin and membrane sufficiently loose to 
admit the limited motion of the jaws. They are connected 
with the powerful massiter muscles, which form the great- 
er part of the bulk of the face, and principally occasion the 
grinding motion of the jaws. In the skull, we find the low- 
er jaw considerably narrower than the upper ; but in the 
living animal this does not appear, the space being occupied 
by the masseter muscles. 

The mouth is principally filled with the tongue, which is 
muscular in its structure, and very flexible, being, indeed, 
the principal agent in swallowing. It possesses both the 
power of feeling and tasting, and is covered by a mucus 
membrane, like that of all other parts of the mouth. The 
mouth is abundantly supplied with a watery fluid, called 
saliva, particularly during mastication, when it is secreted 
in considerable quantities. 

This fluid is principally secreted by three pair of glands, 
the largest of which are the parotid, situated at the root of 
each ear ; the submaxillary, situated under the jaws ; and 
the sublingual, situated under the tongue. Besides these, 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 131 

are other small glands connected with the cheek and bot- 
tom of the mouth. 

There is, thus, from these various sources, an abundant 
supply of saliva, more copious than most animals possess, 
and which is rendered necessary by the hard and woody 
nature of the food consumed in a natural state : and it has 
been found that a large supply passes into the stomach, in- 
dependent of mastication, and is there required for soften- 
ing and macerating the dry food; for, when deprived a 
this supply by an experiment, it has been found that ihe 
contents of the paunch remained dry. — (Spooner.) 



SECTION XIX. 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 

The digestive organs of the sheep, like those of gram- 
inivorous animals in general, have a far more difficult and 
elaborate office to perform than those of carnivorous ani- 
mals. To meet these peculiarities, the digestive organs 
are much more spacious and complicated than those of 
the carnivora: means are afforded for detaining the food until 
the nutriment can be properly extracted, and a larger 
amount of chemical and vital force is employed. 

The natural food of the sheep is embraced by the apposi- 
tion of the incisor teeth of the under jaw, and the cartila- 
ginous pad on the upper jaw, and is torn off by the motion 
of the head. The food being moderately chewed by the 
molar teeth, or grinders, to which it is conveyed by the 
tongue, is, by the same organ, carried to the back of the 
mouth, and being softened by the saliva, and thereby mix- 
ed with atmospheric air, enters a fleshy bag called the 
pharynx, or gullet. 

This pharynx is lined by the same membrane as the 
mouth, and is surrounded by, and, in fact, composed of va- 
rious muscles, which contracting force the food forwards 
into along tube called the dsdphagus, which leads to the 
stomach. The pharynx is situated immediately above the 
larynx or cartilaginous box which forms the entrance to the 



]32 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

windpipe, and the food in entering the gullet passes over 
the entrance to the larynx, which it i^ prevented from en- 
ering by a triangular lid termed epiglottis, which in the 
act of swallowing shuts down on the larynx, but otherwise 
leaves it open for the purpose of respiration. The food af- 
ter leaving the gullet enters the (Esophagus, a very long 
tube lined internally by a white insensible membrane, and 
externally by muscular coats, which, by contracting, force 
the food onwards to the stomach. The sesophagus passes 
down the neck towards its left side and somewhat above the 
windpipe, with which it enters the chest between the two 
first ribs ; it then takes an upward or ascending course 
through the cavity of the chest over the base of the heart, 
passes the midriff or diaphragm, and then descending soon 
afterwards reaching the stomachs. On entering the chest 
it somewhat diminishes in size, but again expands in the 
abdomen. It does not actually terminate in either of the 
stomachs, but in w r hat is called the ozsophagea.n canal, 
which is about four inches and a half in extent, and is form- 
ed above by a continuation of the eesophagus, and below by 
a sort of muscular pillars — duplications of the upper por- 
tions of the first and second stomachs. Thus the sesopha- 
gean canal is a sort of lobby or passage having entrances 
to the different stomachs, and which, with the exception of 
the second and fourth, are the only entrances these stom- 
achs possess. By the annexed cut it will be seen that the food 
duct commences at the entrance to the rumen, and for the 
space of three inches its floor consists of muscular pillars 
or lips, formed by the upper part of the second stomach, 
the entrance to which is between these lips. The pillars 
then continue within the cavity of the third stomach for 
the space of an inch and a half to the entrance of the fourth 
stomach, the third being principally situated above, form- 
ing the roof of the sesophagean canal. The entrance, how- 
ever, to the third commences before the opening into the 
second stomach ceases. The entrance to the fourth stom- 
ach is two inches and a half in extent, and is formed by 
duplications of the mucous and muscular coats of this vis- 
cus, which meet so as to close the entrance when either the 
will of the animal or the necessity of nature requires. 

The usual course of the food is into the rumen or first 
stomach, whoso entrance is close to the termination ol the 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 133 

oesophagus and the entrance of the canal. This stomach 
is of enormous extent, occupying, indeed, when full, near- 
ly three-fourths of the abdomen. It lies towards the left 
side extending to the flank, and by a sort of muscular band 
it is partially divided into two principal compartments. It 
is lined externally by the peritoneal membrane, in common 
with the other contents of the abdomen, and internally by 
an insensible membrane, called the cuticular, between 
which there are two other coats — the mucous, which se- 
cretes the fluid found in the stomach, and external to this 
the muscular coat, which is formed of two orders of fibres 
running in opposite directions. Its interior aspect presents 
a number of pouches or compartments, which are formed 
by muscular bands thrown across from one part to another ; 
and the surface presents an innumerable number of pa- 
pilla? or eminences, not sharp, but blunt-pointed, which are 
formed by the mucous coat and merely covered by the cu- 
ticular. These papilla? are coarser in the lower compart- 
ment of the viscus than in the upper. We have said the 
rumen consists of two compartments, but with greater pro- 
priety it may be stated that there are three, a smallar one 
being situated immediately below the termination of the 
esophagus and adjoining the second stomach. The use of 
these partial divisions is very evident. They relieve one 
portion of the stomach from sustaining the whole of the 
weight of the food, and they afford a sort of steps or rest- 
ing-places for the food that has undergone maceration, the 
upper and smaller compartment being that into which the 
food is raised just previous to being ruminated. The ru- 
men is partly abashed to the second stomach, but only 
communicates with it through the common opening into 
the cesophagean canal. 

The second stomach is called the reticulum; its size is 
considerably less than the rumen, but it possesses much 
strength in its coats, and its muscular fibres are more devel- 
oped. It is globular in shape and somewhat larger than the 
maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe, not only from its 
cellular structure, but from its being thicker than the oth- 
ers. Its internal aspect is very singular, having a vast 
number, indeed several hundred, of shallow cells somewhat 
like a honeycomb. These cells are much smaller at the 
part of the viscus nearest the entrance, and gradually in- 



134 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 




INTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACHS. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 135 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT. 

A. The lower part of the oesophagus, showing its external coat. 

B. Its internal coat at its termination. 

C. The upper compartment of the rumen, or first stomach, showing its in- 

ternal coat. 

D. The strong musculer band which divides the lower from -the upper 

compartment. 

E. The lower compartment of the rumen. 

F. Another muscular band. 

G G. The external coat of the rumen. 

H. The entrance to the rumen cut open, and its opposite part reflected 

back, so as to exhibit an internal view of the second stomach. 
I. The external coat of the reticulum, or second stomach. 
J J J J, The muscular pillars forming the floor of the cesophagean canal 

when close, but now spread open to show the second stomach. 
K K. An internal view of the reticulum, or second stomach, showing its 

peculiar honeycomb structure. 
L L. The continuation of the aesophagean canal at the entrance to the third 

stomach. 
M M. An internal view of the maniplus, or third stomach, showing its pe- 
culiar folds or plaits. 
N N. The fleshy lips, which act as valves to guard the entrance between 

them to the fourth stomach. 
O. The termination of the aasophagean canal. 
F P. The external coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach. 
Q Q. The internal coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach. 

Both these coats are displayed by slitting open the stomach and then 

pinning the duplications together, at its upper part. 
R R. The valve formed by puckerings of the internal coat, and guarding 

the entrance into the small intestines. 
S. The internal coat of the small intestines. 



crease in size from this point. The sides of these cells 
consist of ridges formed by the mucous andcuticular coats, 
and smaller ridges are also observed running across within 
the cells. Most of them are pentagonal, but many have 
six sides, and on their surface we observe an immense 
number of sharp-pointed papilla; much smaller in size 
though sharper than those of the rumen, and which secrete 
a mucous fluid. This viscus has the same coats as the ru- 
men, but the muscular coat has two layers of strong fibres 
arranged both transversely and longitudinally. The open- 
ing into this stomach is of some extent compared to its size ; 
the duplications or lips which form it are indeed the floor 
of the greater portion of the cesophagean canal. Though 
in the ordinary state the roof or upper part of the reticu- 
lum is the floor of the sesophagean canal, yet if air is pump- 
ed into the oesophagus so as to distend the stomachs, the 
situation of the reticulum will become reversed, rising up 



136 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

towards the oesophagus ; and thus if this viscus is distended 
in hoove, as from its free communication with the rumen it 
probably is, it must press upon the diaphragm with very- 
considerable force, greater in proportion even that the ru- 
men itself. The contents of this stomach are more liquid 
than those of the others. 

Somewhat before the end of the entrance of the second, 
the canal terminates, as it were, in the third stomach, the 
maniplus or manifolds, so called from its curious internal 
structure, which is formed by a great number of plaits or 
folds arranged longitudinally in a direction from the en- 
trance of the stomach; so that although it is not large, ex- 
ternally not exceeding the reticulum, its internal surface is 
increased in more than a tenfold degree. These plaits are 
very curiously arranged, being in the form of seven or 
eight groups of six leaves, each leaf dissimilar in length, 
the longest extending almost from the upper to the lower 
part of the stomach. These leaves are studded with nu- 
merous small papillae, much harder than those of the reti- 
culum, and some on the edge of the plaits of the shape of a 

bent cone, thus ( I , the point directed towards the en- 
trance. It has been found in certain cows that would nev- 
er retain their food, but were continually scouring, that 
these plaits were unusually short. 

The maniplus has but one opening, but this opening is 
in direct communication with both the canal and the fourth 
stomach, as may be seen in the sketch, page 134. The 
plaits are studded with numerous minute papillae, some- 
what similar to those found in the reticulum. The mani- 
plus possesses four coats like the others, and its external 
appearance is globular. Its contents are generally found 
of a much harder consistence than those of the other stom- 
achs. 

The stomach, when full, is found above the sesophagean 
canal, forming, indeed, a portion of its roof, and its longest 
leaves fall down, as it were, almost into that canal. 

The abornasum, as the fourth stomach is called, is, in 
fact, the true stomach, being that which secretes the gas- 
tric juice by which the food is converted into chyme. It is 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 137 

this peculiar acid which gives it the power of coagulating 
milk, and in calves it is particularly employed for this pur- 
pose in the manufacture of cheese, under the term rennet. 

Externally this organ is somewhat conical in shape, its 
apex being the part which joins the intestines. It possesses 
three coats, like the other stomachs ; but its internal sur- 
face is very different, being smooth and shining, and of a 
pale red color. Its mucous membrane is, indeed, very vas- 
cular, and this secretes the gastric juice. The internal sur- 
face is greatly increased, and exceeds the external, by be- 
ing in the form of plaits, arranged longitudinally, but very 
different from those found in the maniplus. The entrance 
to this stomach (its cardiac opening) is close to the en- 
trance to the maniplus ; it is arranged somewhat in a cres- 
centic form, and is situated at one extremity of the base, 
while the pyloric opening, leading into the small intestines. 
is, as before observed, situated at the apex. Having thus 
described the situation and appearance of the stomachs, an 
external view of which may be seen at page 142, we must 
return to the consideration of the course of the food through 
them. 

The situation, the structure, and the size of the rumen 
point it out as the first and general receptacle for the food, 
which receives in the mouth only sufficient mastication to 
enable the animal to swallow it. It is then received by the 
rumen, and morsel after morsel is taken until this viscus is 
comparatively full. The animal then feels some repletion, 
and rumination usually takes place, the animal generally 
preferring a recumbent position. It has been shown, how- 
ever, that it is not the food just taken, but that which has 
been swallowed some twelve or sixteen hours previously, 
that undergoes the ruminating process. The food, indeed, 
is turned and shifted about the stomach by its muscular ac- 
tion, and well mixed with the fluid secreted by its internal 
surface : it, of course, enters at first the superior_compart- 
ment, from which it passes to the inferior, and again enters 
the former division ere rumination takes place. A tolera- 
bly full stomach is necessary for the act; for it has been 
found in sheep that had fasted for several days that a toler- 
able portion of food still remained in the rumen. Before 
rumination can take place it is evident that the food must 
rise to the upper part of the viscus and enter the assopha- 



138 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

gean canal. What, then, is its direction? The liquid por- 
tion passes on in the course of the canal ; but it is contend- 
ed by some physiologists that the second stomach, the reti- 
culum, is the active agent in rumination, and that the food 
enters it previous to its being returned to the mouth, and 
they are supported in this opinion by the muscular strength 
possessed by this viscus. In opposition to this opinion it 
may be urged that it requires but little more force to raise 
the food to the root of the oesophagus than to the entrance 
of the reticulum, and also, that the contents of the second 
stomach are of a more fluid nature than those of the first. 
It is not to be supposed that all the food taken is again ru- 
minated ; it is only the hard indigestible portion that un- 
dergoes the process. Rumination is assisted by the pres- 
sure of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, and the 
larger and more distended the stomachs the more likely 
they are to receive assistance from these aids. Keeping 
these facts in view, we are inclined to believe that both 
the first and second stomach may have equal power in the 
process of rumination. In accordance with this idea we 
must suppose that a mass of food is raised from the rumen 
into the eesophagean canal, that the hardest and driest por- 
tion is selected by the root of the oesophagus, and that the 
other part passes onwards, and whilst some portion may 
reach the third, the great part will foil, as it were, through 
the trap-door into the second stomach, there to undergo a 
further macerating or digesting process. When this viscus 
is moderately full it will contract on its contents, and first 
squeeze out the fluid portion, which will, of course, pass 
onwards into the third and fourth stomachs, whilst the solid 
part will be embraced by the oesophagus and returned to the 
mouth. 

It is evident that the functions of the aesophagus are 
much more onerous than in non-ruminating animals, and 
accordingly it is furnished with more muscular power; the 
lower portion particularly is surrounded with spiral mus- 
cles, by which the selected pellet is first sent upwards. 

It is not unlikely that some portion of the food may be 
submitted two or more times to the process of rumination. 
It is probable that the most liquid portion of the food at 
once enters the fourth stomach, and that of a harder na- 
ture the maniplus. The singular construction of this vis- 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 139 

cus evidently shows that it must effect an important office, 
and it has been found that in animals which through lite 
have never thriven well, notwithstanding that they have 
consumed a larger quantity of food than other beasts, the 
maniplus has been imperfectly formed, the plaits being 
short so as to afford considerably less surface than usual. — 
The use of this stomach, therefore, is to detain the food, to 
press it between the folds, and to soften it by the secretion 
afforded by its extensive surface, and thus to prepare it for 
the action of the gastric juice in the fourth stomach, to 
which organ we now trace it. 

In the young animal living entirely on its mother's milk, 
the fourth is the only stomach employed ; it is, therefore, 
then fully developed, whilst the others are small and im- 
perfectly formed. The milk contains the elements of nu- 
trition in a much more perfect state than it exists in vege- 
table food. It requires but a little separation in order to fit 
it for nutrition. As the young animal gradually becomes 
inured to other food, the other stomachs become more de- 
veloped. By the time the food reaches the abomasum it is 
in a macerated pulpy state, and fit to be exposed to the pow- 
erful solvent action of the gastric juice. This fluid is se- 
creted in abundance by the mucous coat of the fourth sto- 
mach. It is a peculiar fluid, acid in its nature, and so pow- 
erful a solvent that it has been known after death to dis- 
solve a portion of the coats of the stomach itself. It has in 
its composition muriatic acid, and its action on the food is 
of a chemical nature, converting it into chyme and render- 
ing it into a fit state for the other digestive processes. The 
food being thus dissolved passes through the pyloric open- 
ing into the small intestines; this orifice has a valve-like 
construction (see p. 134), admitting the food to pass in one 
direction only, and then not until it has been sufficiently 
acted on by ths gastric juice. 

The small intestines. are of considerable length in the 
sheep, being upwards of sixty feet. In the human subject 
it is customary to divide them into three portions, and they 
are called the duodenum, the jejunum, and' the ileum. — 
These distinctions are arbitrary even in man, but still more 
so in the sheep, and, in fact, cannot be properly applied. — 
The whole length of the intestinal tube of the sheep, from 



140 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

the stomach to the rectum, is upward of 90 feet.* The first 
portion of these intestines (the duodenum in man) differs 
much from the rest. It lies comparatively loose, and on open- 
ing it we observe a yellow substance, which is, in fact, the 
bile, which enters by aductor very small tube some eighteen 
inches from the stomach, and at nearly the same place an- 
other fluid flows in from the pancreas or sweetbread. These 
fluids, it may be supposed, exercise an important office in 
the process of digestion, and the early portion of the small 
guts is the situation where the admixture takes place. 

The liver is a bulky organ whose size, general appear- 
ance, and shape must be familiar to most people. Its 
weight in sheep is about one-fiftieth that of the carcase, and 
its specific gravity is somewhat greater than water. It is 
partially separated into divisions or lobes, and is princi- 
pally situated towards the right side. Its office is to separ- 
ate the bile from the venous blood — that which has circu- 
lated through a great portion of the body and is on its way 
to the lungs to be re-purified. It is called a gland, and is, 
in fact, a fine sieve or filter, having the power of separating 
a peculiar substance from the blood and no other. It is 
supplied with arterial blood for its own nourishment, but by 
means of a large vein called the vena porta it is furnished 
with venous blood for the exercise of its functions. The 
bile being thus separated, is then conveyed into a reservoir 
attached to the liver and called the gall-bladder, from 
which the gall-duct rises, and enters the intestine about 
eighteen inches from the stomach. Eliminating animals, 
in common with man and the carnivora, are furnished with 
a gall-bladder, whilst horses and the other solid ungulous 
animals do not possess them ; the reason being that in the 
latter the digestive process is continually going' on, and 
therefore a constant supply of bile is essential, while in the 
former the food is either taken in distinct meals, as in man 
and the carnivora, or otherwise the ruminating process is 
carried on and renewed at different periods, as in sheep and 
cattle — in either case requiring large and copious supplies 
of bile to complete the process of digestion. It must be ev- 
ident from the existence of the gall-bladder in some species 
of animals and its absence in others that the bile must per- 
form an important part in the digestive process. One of its 

*Blacklock. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 141 

functions is to neutralize the acidity which the food or 
chyme has acquired in the stomach by means of the gastric 
juice, and thus prepare it for the separation of the chyle 
which may be seen on the surface of the food. For this 
purpose it is largely supplied with an alkaline fluid, which 
unites chemically with the acid of the chyme. The quan- 
tity of bile secreted by the sheep in 24 hours is very con- 
siderable, probably from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs.;- but we are not to 
suppose that its sole use is that above stated, for it has been 
proved that the bile does not pass away with the excre- 
ments, but is again taken into the system to perform an im- 
portant office to be noticed when we speak of the circula- 
tion. Thus the liver separates that which would be detri- 
mental to the blood, and it supplies what is wanted for di- 
gestion as well as for another important process in respira- 
tion. 

Besides the bile the duodenum receives a copious sup- 
ply of fluid of a thin watery nature from the pancreas. — 
This fluid closely resembles the saliva, and its principal use 
appears to be to liquify the contents of the intestines. 

The remaining part of the small intestines understood 
under the terms jejunum and ileum are confined to, and 
connected with, the spine by means of a thin transparent 
membrane called the mesentery, which not only supports 
the intestines, but prevents their entanglement, and serves 
as the vehicle by means of which the arteries, veins, nerves, 
and absorbent vessels are transmitted to and from the bow- 
els. Amongst these there are some very minute, though 
very numerous vessels called the lacteals, whose office it is 
to convey the chyle, a white milky liquid resembling albu- 
men, from the intestines to a duct termed the thoracic, 
which passes along the spine and terminates in a large vein 
just previous to its arrival at the heart. 

The composition of the chyme is very similar to the 
blood, differing from it in little more than the absence of 
its coloring principles. The lacteals, of course, open into 
the inner coat of the intestines, and the greater portion of 
the chyle is taken from the food in the small intestines and 
in the earliest portion of them in the greatest degree. The 
small intestines are remarkably long in the sheep, exceed- 
ing, indeed, sixty feet, and this great length renders them 
capable of containing much more than the large guts. 



142 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 




EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES 

Spread apart and arranged according to the following scale, so as to 
show their actual and relative size. 
1 foot. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 143 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT. 

A A. The oesophag-us. 

BBBB. The rumen, or first stomach, showing its compartments. 

C. The reticulum, or second stomach. 

D. The maniplus, or third stomach. 

D. The abomasum, or fourth or true stomach. 

F. The commencement of the small intestines at the pyloric orifice of the 

stomach. 

G. The situation where the biliary duct empties its contents into the duo- 

denum. 
H H H. The small intestines freed from the mesentery, and arranged 

evenly, so as to show their length. 
I. The termination of the small and beginning of the large intestines, 

guarded by a valve. 
J J. The colon, or first large intestine. 

K. The blind extremity of the colon, by some termed the cczcum. 
L. The rectum, or straight gut. 



In man, the large intestines are distinguished as the 
ccBCum, the colon, and the rectum ; in the horse, these di- 
visions likewise obtain, and with much more propriety than 
the artificial distinctions of the small guts. The csecum 
and the colon in the horse commence almost close to each 
other, but the former is a blind gut, having but one en- 
trance. The sheep, however, can scarcely be said to pos- 
sess a caecum, unless we term the blind portion of the co- 
lon by that name ; for the fact is, the small intestines ter- 
minate in the large at a right angle with them (see I, in p. 
142), and the blind portion extends about a foot in on*?, di- 
rection from this angle and maintains its size for the space 
of two feet. 

The 'termination of the small intestines in the large de- 
serves particular notice. The internal membrane of the 
former projects into the latter so as to form a sort of valve, 
which, admitting the fseces to pass forwards, effectually 
prevents their passing backwards, and thus, too, prevents 
the effects of clysters operating beyond the large intestines. 
The diameter of the colon is about treble that of the small 
intestines, but this increased size only reaches the extent 
of three feet, when the intestine gradually diminishes to 
about the size of the small guts, and %o continues for about 
nine feet, when it enlarges about a foot prior to its termi- 
nation. This latter portion may be termed the rectum 
without impropriety. Soon after the large intestines be- 
come narrow, the fseces gradually become hard, and ac- 



144 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

quire the form of small black balls, in which state they are 
dropped. 

The chyle, we have observed, is principally absorbed 
from that portion of the small intestines termed the ileum : 
there is little or none remaining by the time the fasces 
reach the large intestines, but the fluid absorbed from these 
guts is principally of a watery nature. 



SECTION XX. 

THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. 

The urine is separated from the arterial blood by means 
of the kidneys, which are two large glands shaped like a 
bean, situated within the abdomen, but attached firmly to 
the loins. These glands are largely supplied with blood by 
important arteries ; and the urine being separated as by a 
filter enters two long white ducts termed the ureters, one of 
which rises from the pelvis or central notch of each kid- 
ney, and passes on to the bladder, whose coats are pierced 
in an oblique direction (which, forming a sort of valve, 
prevents the urine returning) not very far from its extrem- 
ity or fundus.* 

The Madder is situated partly in the pelvis and partly in 
the abdomen, the latter part being comparatively free, 
whilst the former is closely attached to the pelvis. The 
shape of the bladder is too well known to need description. 
It becomes smaller as it approaches its posterior part, where 
it contracts and forms the neck just opening into a canal 

*The urine of the sheep is much less copious than that of the cow, and, 
though less abounding in substances containing nitrogen, possesses a larger 
proportion of ^salts. The following is an analysis of 100*000 parts by 
weight: — 

Water 96-000 

Urea, along with some albumen and coloring matter •• •• 2-800 
Salts of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with traces 
of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese 1-200 



100-000 
This giveg 4 per cent, more water than the urine of cows, than which it it 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 145 

called the urethra. The bladder, although apparently so 
thin, yet has three coats, the middle one of which is mus- 
cular and possesses the power of contracting so as to expel 
the whole of its contents when required, and the opening is 
usually kept closed by a sphincter or circular muscle, 
which relaxes when thft bladder is being emptied. The 
urethra in the ewe is very short, a few inches only in 
length, and it is guarded by muscles which are employed 
both in expelling the urine and in the act of procreation . 

In the ram the urethra is of considerably greater length, 
extending the whole length of the penis ; it forms an acute 
angle at the perineum, just under the anus. The penis is a 
muscular organ, having a very curious structure, which en- 
ables it to receive at times a considerably increased quan- 
tity of blood, which causes the erection of the organ and 
fits it for the purpose of generation. Its usual state, howev- 
er, is flaccid, when its use is confined to the ejection of the 
urine. 

The vagina and uterus, or womb or lamb-bag, lies be- 
tween the rectum above and the bladder below, and though 
much within the pelvis in their ordinary state, yet when 
pregnant they rise into the abdomen to a great extent. The 
vagina, which commences a few inches within the body, is 
a cylindrical cavity several inches in length, and opens in- 
to the uterus by a round opening called the mouth of the 
womb, which is naturally open, but becomes closed after 
impregnation. Its shape corresponds with the extremity of 
the penis, and these parts come in contact in the act of coi- 
tion. The womb consists of a body and two branches or 
horns. It has the same number of coats as the bladder, 
but they are much stouter and more so than those of the 
vagina. Attached to the extremity of each horn by a mem- 
branous substance are two red bodies called the ovaries, 
each of which consists of a number of ova or eggs, the 
germs of the offspring, one of which on being impregnated 
escapes into the uterus, and thus, in the course of time, be- 
less fertalizing to the soil, if the latter is properly prepared; but the dung 
of sheep is much more nutritious than that of cows, and the urine likewise, 
when dropped on pasture land, is more serviceable, in consequence of the 
small quantity deposited at a time, and the less proportion of caustic am- 
monia contained, so that it does not render the herbage rank, as is the 
well-known effect of the fresh urine from cows. 



146 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

comes a young animal ; sometimes, indeed, two or even 
tree ova may be impregnated, anal twins or triplets are pro- 
duced. 

The testicles, or stones, as they are commonly termed, 
are two oval glands situated in the scrotum, a sort of bag 
formed by the skin and two membranes within, which are 
so disposed as to form two separate cavities, each contain- 
ing a testicle. The testicles are first formed in the abdo- 
men of the foetus, aud each possesses a covering closely at- 
tached to the gland. They escape from the abdomen 
through the openings called the abdominal rings and take 
with them portions of the peritoneum, the membrane which 
lines the abdomen and its contents ; thus it is that they 
possess two coats besides the skin. The abdominal rings 
remain open afterwards, contrary to what takes place in the 
human subject, so that a fluid can be ejected from the scro- 
tum into the abdomen, and thus it is that sometimes after 
the operation of castration inflammation takes place and 
spreads upwards into the belly and destroys the lamb. In 
those cases where portions of the intestines are found in 
the scrotum they escape from the abdomen, together with 
the testicle, and the case is denominated congenital hernia. 
The testicles are also each connected with the belly by 
means of the spermatic cord, which consists of a long slen- 
der muscle, nerves, veins, arteries, and a strong hollow 
tube called the spermatic duct. It is the latter which con- 
veys the semimal fluid secreted by the singular structure 
of the testicle into the urethra, where, after mixing with 
other secretions from some small glands, it is forcibly eject- 
ed by the muscles of the penis in the act of copulation. 

The testicles are very large in proportion to the size of 
the animal, and are in keeping with the powerful seminal 
powers possessed by the ram, and which enable him when 
iuil grown to serve properly eighty ewes or upwards. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 147 



SECTION XXI. 

THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 

The mouth in ibe horse is almost entirely devoted to the 
office of mastication. It is separated from the cavity of the 
nostrils by a loose fleshy membrane called velum palati, 
which is confined to the bone above by a semi-circular bor- 
der, and falls downwards and backwards so as to prevent, 
in a natural state, any communication between the wind- 
pipe and the mouth. The sheep likewise possesses this 
velum palati, but it is not so long, and therefore permits 
this animal to respire through the mouth as well as the nos- 
trils. The importance of this construction is seen in the 
process of rumination, and also accounts for the horse 
vomiting through the nostrils, on those {aw occasions when 
this animal has been known to vomit. The nostrils, how- 
ever, are the principal channel through which the air pas- 
ses to and from the lungs. Their entrance is compara- 
tively small and confined; the sheep docs not require so 
extensive a supply of air as other animals that are called 
upon to make considerable exertions. The cavity of the 
nostrils is divided into two compartments by a thick carti- 
laginous substance, termed by anatomists the septum nasi, 
fixed to the nasal in front, and behind to the maxillary 
bones. This cartilage, as well as the other parts of the 
nostrils, is lined by a fine delicate membrane which se- 
cretes a mucus for its protection. It is indeed an inflam- 
mation of this membrane which constitutes a catarrh or 
cold, and an increase of its natural mucous secretion is the 
discharge from the nose which is visible in this disease. — 
This membrane is called the Schneiderian, from the name 
of its discoverer, as well as the pituitary, and it is endowed 
with- a high degree of sensibility, which it derives from an 
abundant supply of sensitive nerves ; it is also the principal 
seat of the sense of smelling, and for this purpose the nerve 
devoted to this function is spread out on its surface. This 
membrane also covers four curious bones, thin and gauze- 
like in their structure, and roiled up like a turban, so that 
they are termed turbinated, and attached to the chambers of 
the nostrils. These greatly extend the surface on which 



148 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

the nerve of smell is diffused, and consequently increases 
ihe function of this sense, which sheep enjoy in a very high 
degree. The nostrils at the upper and back part terminate 
in a cartilaginous box called the larynx, which is situated 
immediately beneath the pharynx or food-bag, so that food, 
in passing into the latter, traverses the entrance of the for- 
mer, which, however, it is prevented from entering by a 
triangular lid called the epiglottis : this lid in its usual state 
is elevated from the glottis or entrance of the larynx, so as 
to admit the free entrance and exit of the air, but the pas- 
sage of food forces it down so as to close the entrance of the 
windpipe. The larynx is formed by four separate cartila- 
ges besides the epiglottis just spoken of. One is shaped 
like a shield, and forms the front of the larynx and great 
portion of its sides. Another below this is circular, and 
two other smaller ones, shaped like an ewer, forms the rims 
on which the epiglottis shuts down. The larynx is lined 
throughout by a mucous membrane, which is endowed with 
a high degree of sensibility, particularly at its upper por- 
tion ; and thus when any foreign body accidentally enters, 
or the mucus is in undue quantity, it excites the membrane, 
and coughing is produced, by which it is expelled. The 
windpipe consists of a number of cartilaginous rings con- 
nected together by elastic membrane so as to form a con- 
tinuous tube passing down the front part of the neck, and 
entering the chest between the two first ribs. The rings are 
not completely cartilaginous, but the circle is made up of 
membrane, the membranous part being on the upper por- 
tion of the tube. This structure permits the windpipe to be 
bent in any direction or compressed without injury, its elas- 
ticity quickly restoring it to its former shape, or position. 
The windpipe, on entering the chest, divides into two por- 
tions, going to each division- of the lungs ; and these sub- 
divide into others, which again ramify into numerous small 
tubes, which ultimately terminate in very minute air-cells. 
The lungs, which receive these terminations, form by far 
the greater portion of the contents of the chest, which, how- 
ever, it will be proper to describe first. 

The chest of the sheep, in common with most quadru- 
peds, is unlike that of the human body, becoming narrow 
towards the lower part and terminating like the keel of a 
ship ; a form more favorable to the flexion and extension 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 149 

of the fore-legs, as well as of the shoulder-blades, than any- 
other. This keel-like form is, however, much less devel- 
oped in the sheep than in the horse and many other quad- 
rupeds. The upper part of the chest is formed by the 
spine or back-bone, the sides by the ribs, and the lower and 
front part by the sternum or breast-bone. The number of 
ribs varies in different animals ; in man there are twelve, 
in the horse eighteen, but in the sheep there are only thir- 
teen pair. Each rib possesses two heads or protuberances, 
each of which is connected by a joint with two vertebrae or 
bones of the back, and to the breast-bone b}^ means of car- 
tilage. The sternum or breast-bone, in young animals, is 
chiefly cartilaginous, and may be separated into eight pie- 
ces ; it afterwards becomes divisible into four only, and 
with age is consolidated into one. The ribs are exiernally 
convex, and are divided into the true and false ; the former 
being situated anterior to the others, and immediately con- 
nected with the sternum, whilst the latter are implanted in- 
to each other at their cartilaginous extremities, and are on- 
' ly connected with the breast-bone by means of the true 
ribs. Their connexion with the spine, by means of a double 
joint, affords to the ribs a motion backwards and forwards, 
by which means the cavity of the chest is enlarged or di- 
minished. This motion, however, is considerably less in 
quadrupeds than in man, for in the'latter the rising and fall- 
ing of the chest is seen in common respiration, whilst in 
the former it is not perceived, unless the breathing be em- 
barrassed. The ribs are connected together by fleshy sub- 
stance, termed the interested muscles, which are disposed 
in an oblique course, by which means their length consid- 
erably exceeds that of the space between one rib and anoth- 
er, so that a contraction of one-third their length will bring 
the ribs together, which could not be the case if the mus- 
cles took the shortest course from one rib to another. 

The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly by a 
very singular and important muscle, called the diaphragm 
or midriff, which is convex towards the chest when in a 
state of rest. This muscle is shaped somewhat like a fan, 
and is attached to the inferior extremities of the ribs and 
the spine, by which means its position is rendered oblique, 
its developments more extended, and its action greater than 
it would otherwise have been. The diaphragm, unlike ev- 



1 50 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

ery other muscle, is fleshy at its circumference and tendin- 
ous at its centre. The reason of this peculiar construction 
may be thus explained : — the central part of the diaphragm 
is pierced with two holes, for the passage of the oesophagus 
(the tube which conveys food to the stomach) and the vein 
which conveys the blood to the livei for the secretion of 
bile. Now, if these important vessels were surrounded with 
muscular substance, they would be forcibly compressed ev- 
ery time the diaphragm contracted, and would in conse- 
quence be liable to considerable injury ; but being sur- 
rounded with tendinous substance, which possesses no such 
power of contraction, all danger of compression is at once 
removed, without any sacrifice of strength or power in the 
muscle. The diaphragm, when in a quiescent state, is con- 
vex towards the chest, and when in action it becomes flat, 
thus enlarging the cavity of the chest. 

The thorax is everywhere lined internally by a thin se- 
rous membiane, which secretes a fluid by which the surface 
of the cavity is lubricated, and its contents are enabled to 
glide upon each other without occasioning any friction or 
inconvenience. This membrane is called the pleura, and 
the portion which lines the chest itself is designated the 
pleura costalis, while that which covers the lungs is distin- 
guished as the pleura pulmandlis. This membrane di- 
vides the chest into three cavities, one on the right side 
containing the right lung, and the other two on the left 
side, the smaller of which contains the heart and the lar- 
ger the left lung. 

The fight lung is thus the largest, and consists of three 
lobes or divisions, whilst the left lung only contains two. — 
These divisions of the chest do not communicate with each 
other, so that if one cavity is injured, or air is admitted in- 
to, respiration can be carried on in the other. 

The lungs are light spongy bodies, their specific gravity 
being one-half less than water. They are composed of the 
air-cells before spoken of, the bronchial tubes connected 
with them, and a vast number of arteries, veins, and ab- 
sorbent vessels, the whole being connected together by 
cellular substance, or parenchyma as it is termed : thus con- 
stituted, the lungs are closely packed away in the cavity of 
the chest, frilling every part of it, so as to leave no vacant 
space whatever. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 151 

CHAPTER XXII. 

THEBLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 

The blood is by far the most important fluid in the ani- 
mal machine : it stimulates the heart to contract, secretes 
and nourishes the various organs of the body, and supplies 
it with heat; and although it is the source whence other 
fluids are obtained, it is yet a fluid sui generis, differing 
from all others. Soon after it is drawn from the body it 
coagulates, and then separates into two parts : the serum, a 
watery, colorless fluid, which floats on the top, and the 
crassamentum, which appears of a firm consistency and a 
red color. The serum is a peculiar fluid, and may be sep- 
arated into its constituent principles. If subjected to a tem- 
perature of 150 deg., a portion is converted into a sub- 
stance resembling albumen or the white of an egg ; the oth- 
er portion remains fluid and is termed the serosity of the 
blood, and is that which constitutes the gravy in meat. — 
The serum contains several salts in solution, the most 
abundant of which is soda. Thecrassamentum is likewise 
divisible into two portions: the cruor, which gives to the 
blood its purple hue; and the lymph, which is more solid 
in its nature, and is considered the basis of the coagulum. 
The latter can be separated from the former by washing, 
and likewise separates when the blood is a long time coag- 
ulating, in which case the red portion of the blood, being 
the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, leaving the 
lymph on the top. The cruor, or red portion of the blood, 
has been found, on being submitted to a microscope, to be 
composed of globules, which are supposed to be each about 
the three or four thousandth part of an inch in diameter. — 
It is therefore to these globules that the blood owes its red- 
ness : but the intensity of the color is subject to great vari- 
ation, being darker in animals that are poorly fed, or when 
exposed to carbonic acid, and becoming more florid in oth- 
ers that are well fed, and also when exposed to oxygen, or 
to atmospheric air. 

The other part of the cressamentum, the lymph, which 
from its nature is also called the Jibrine, is, in fact, the 
most important of all ; for it is that which mainly supplies 



1 52 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

the different parts of the body, particularly the muscles, 
with nutriment, and repairs wounds and fractures in an ex- 
traordinary manner. Unlike the cruor, it exists in the 
blood of all animals, and in every part of the system. — 
Some animals have .entirely white blood, the cruor being 
absent ; and in red-blooded animals there are some por- 
tions of the body, such as the white of the eye, where the 
vessels are so small that they do not admit the red globules. 
The specific gravity of blood rather exceeds that of water; 
but venous blood is somewhat heavier than arterial. The 
temperature of the blood varies in different animals ; in 
man it is 98 deg., but in the sheep 103 deg. It is rather 
warmer in the arteries than in the veins, and is liable to va- 
riation from disease, it having been found in severe inflam- 
mations to be raised 7 deg. in man, and in the cold fit of 
agues 4 deg. lower than in a state of health. It is, however, 
but slightly raised or depressed by external temperature. — 
It was not till comparatively a recent date that the blood 
has been considered to possess vitality, which, however, is 
now generally acknowledged. The vitality and fluidity of 
the blood are intimately associated ; in fact, its coagulation, 
when removed from the body, constitutes its death. The 
time in which ihis is taking place is different in different 
animals, and is influenced by various circumstances. In 
strong animals, such as the horse, it is longer than in such 
weak animals as the sheep : in the former it is often as long 
as fifteen minutes ; and if the body be in a state of plethora, 
the vital power being too highly developed, the death of the 
blood is much longer resisted. In these cases coagulation 
is delayed, and, in consequence, the red portion of the 
blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, 
and the fibrine remains at the top, constituting the bully 
coat of inflammation. This separation, when arising from 
the above cause, takes place long before the serum is de- 
veloped. The coagulation of the blood has been endeav- 
ored to be accounted for without success; it was held by 
some that it was produced by the cessation, of its motion; 
but it has been found that if stirred in a vessel it will coag- 
ulate quicker than before. It was thought that exposure to 
the atmosphere was the cause; but it has been known to 
coagulate in a vacuum, and likewise in the body when a 
vein has been tied. It was next conceived that it was cau- 



STRUCTURE OP THE SHEEP. 153 

sed by the low temperature to which it is exposed ; but it 
has been ascertained that it will coagulate quicker if the 
temperature is either higher or lower than natural ; but if 
so low as to freeze the blood, it will not coagulate when af- 
terwards thawed. These experiments show that the blood 
is analagous to no other fluid, and that coagulation cannot 
be owing to physical causes, but can be explained only by 
reference to its vitality. 

Although the blood will coagulate in the body if obstruct- 
ed, yet there is a considerable difference between this state 
and its coagulation out of the body. In the former instance 
coagulation is longer occurring, new vessels are thrown in- 
to its substance, and it becomes organized. So, likewise, 
if a part be wounded, the divided vessels throw out clots of 
blood, which adhere to the surface of the wound ; the red 
particles become absorbed, the glutinous fibrine organized, 
and the breach is thus gradually restored. Thus we see 
how important it is that the blood should possess its pecu- 
liar properties, its state of fluidity, and its disposition to co- 
agulate : if the former did not exist, the blood would be ob- 
structed in the capillary vessels, and the vital functions 
could not be carried on ; and if deprived of its coagulating 
property, no wounds couid heal, or loss of substance be 
restored, but the most trilling cut would be the precursor of 
death. 

The quantity of blood contained in the body is very dif- 
ficult to ascertain ; for if an animal be bled to death, a good 
deal will still remain in the blood-vessels. It has, however, 
been estimated to be about one-fifth the weight of the body ; 
and of this, about three-fourths are contained in the veins, 
and one-fourth in the arteries. In young animals there is 
more than in old ones, as in them the body must not only 
be sustained, but increased in size. It is likewise more 
abundant in wild animals than in tame ones, and in propor- 
tion to the vigor of the animal. 

The Heart is a strong hollow muscle, of a conical shape, 
with its base towards the spine, and its apex towards the 
left side, against which it is thrown at every contraction.— 
It is double, having a right and left side, the former con- 
taining black, and the latter red blood ; the right side is the 
thinnest and weakest, being devoted to the lesser office of 
the circulation of the lungs ; the left the stoutest, having to 



1 54 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

govern the general circulation of the system. Each of 
these halves consists of two cavities, an auricle and a ven- 
tricle ; the former, which derives its name from its resem- 
blauce to a dog's ear, is considerably thinner than the lat- 
ter, and is situated towards the base. The heart is formed 
principally of fleshy fibres, connected together by cellular 
tissue, whence it obtains its elasticity ; and its surfaces, both 
internal and external, are lined by a transparent membrane. 
The blood is prevented from moving in a retrogade course 
by means of a number of valves : there are three in the 
left ventricle, the edges of which are connected by tendi- 
nous cords (corda tendincc) to small fleshy eminences on 
the inside of the ventricle, called carnaz columnce, or fleshy 
columns. The tendinous cords are more numerous in the 
valves of the left ventricle than in the other pans, and be- 
ing supposed, with the valves, to resemble a mitre, are 
named mitral valves. There are valves also in the right 
ventricle for similar purposes, which are named tricuspid, 
or three pointed ; also in the great artery, or aorta, and in 
the pulmonary artery, where, having no cords, and resem- 
bling, or supposed to do so, a half- moon, they are named 
semilunar. The heart is enclosed in a strong membranous 
bag, which is named pericardium, and this encloses also thf 
trunks of the veins and arteries, as well as the appendages 
or auricles. 

The heart is a muscle, but unlike other muscles, it is in- 
voluntary, being altogether independent of the will, and is 
for this purpose supplied by a peculiar set of nerves. It is 
also furnished abundantly with blood for its support, by 
means of arteries which are the first that are given off; and 
these arteries are accompanied by veins for the return of 
the blood to its proper receptacle. 

THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 

is one of the most important processes in the animal econ- 
omy : when suspended for a few moments, a state of insen- 
sibility is produced, and if this suspension continues a little 
longer, death quickly supervenes. 

The heart, we have seen, consists of two halves or sides, 
the right being devoted to the pulmonary circulation. The 
right auricle receives from a large vein, called the vena 
cava, the blood which has travelled throughout the system ; 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 155 

whence it passes, by the action of the heart, into the right 
ventricle, which by its contraction forces it injo a large ves- 
sel called the pulmonary artery. Thence the blood is sent 
into the lungs and ramifies throughout its minute vessels, 
where it is exposed to the action of the inspired air, and 
becomes, by means we shall afterwards speak of, reddened 
and purified. This process being accomplished, the blood 
passes into minute vessels, which, coalescing, become the 
pulmonary veins, and through them the blood again returns 
to the heart; thus finishing the circuit of the pulmonary 
circulation. 

The left auricle receives the purified blood from the pul- 
monary Veins, forces it into the left ventricle, which, con- 
tracting, sends the vital fluid into a large strong vessel call- 
ed the aorta, whence it enters smaller arteries, to be dis- 
tributed throughout the whole system. The remote divi- 
sions of the arteries are called the capillary vessels, and in 
them the blood, after having accomplished its purposes and 
conveyed nourishment to all parts, becomes black and im- 
pure, and in this state enters the capillary veins, which, 
conjoining and increasing in size and diminishing in num- 
ber, convey the blood again to the right auricle of the heart. 
Just before it enters the heart it receives a supply of chyle, 
which, as we have before observed, is extracted from the 
food, absorbed by certain vessels called Iacteals, and con- 
ve3 r ed by a specific channel to the heart. Such, then, is 
the circle, or rather the double circle, which the blood 
takes, and by which so many important purposes are beau- 
tifully and correctly accomplished. 

The circulation of the blood is accomplished by the joint 
action of the heart and arteries, but principally by that of 
the former. The contraction of the ventricles and of the 
auricles immediately succeed each other : as the one ex- 
pands to receive the blood, the other contracts to force it 
forward, thus producing the unequal double action of the 
heart that we feel. These actions, however, of the differ- 
ent cavities could not be correctly performed unless some 
provision were made for preventing the blood, when the 
ventricles contract, from retrogading into the auricles. — 
This, however, is effected by means of a valve, situated 
between these cavities, which is formed by a duplication of 
the inner membrane of the heart, thickened by fibrous sub* 



156 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

stance. The floating edges of this valve in the right ven- 
tricle present three points and in the left two ; whence the 
former is called the tricuspid, and the latter the mitral. — 
The edges of each valve are joined by numerous short ten- 
dons to the fleshy columns of the heart ; and whilst the 
blood is flowing into the ventricles the fleshy columns are 
passive ; but when the ventricles act these columns also 
contract and draw the edges of the valve together, and thus 
close the cavity in that direction and prevent the blood re- 
entering the auricle. 

There are also valves that guard the entrance of the 
aorta and pulmonary arteries, but they are of a different 
description, being of less strength, because they are not 
called upon to oppose the powerful action of the ventricles. 
Accordingly we find that they consist of three folds of mem- 
brane, and are called, from their shape, semilunar. They 
are so situated that when the blood passes into the arteries 
they are thrown against their sides, and when the blood has 
passed they are thrown up so that their edges meet, and 
thus prevent the blood returning to the heart. 

In fishes the heart is single, and only serves the office of 
the pulmonary circulation, that of the system being accom- 
plished by the arteries alone. In the sheep, though the 
heart is the principal power, yet the arteries greatly assist. 
The aorta, which receives the blood from the left ventricle, 
divides into two branches, called the anterior and posterior 
aorta ; the former conveying the blood to the head and 
neck, and the latter to the lower parts of the body. These 
arteries are strong and thick, and consist of three coats ; 
the outer, the strongest and thickest, gives the vessels the 
remarkable elasticity which they possess ; the middle coat 
is the fibrous, which seems to be a modification of muscu- 
cular power, and enables the arteries to contract on their 
contents ; the third coat is the serous, which lubricates the 
interior of the vessel and facilitates the passage of the blood. 
Thus to these several coats, but particularly to the two for- 
mer, do. the arteries owe the remarkable property they pos- 
sess of contracting when distended with blood, and almost 
immediately afterwards expanding to receive a fresh sup- 
ply, and which, assisted by the action of the heart, consti- 
tutes the pulse ;. and may be felt in every part of the body 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 1 57 

where an artery is sufficiently near the surface to be per- 
ceptible. 

The arteries, however, do not all possess an equal thick- 
ness and power ; for instance, the pulmonary artery, though 
quite as large as the aorta, is neither so thick nor so strong ; 
and the reason is, that the same power is not required to 
send the blood over the smaller circuit of the lungs as over 
the larger one of the whole system ; and, for the same rea- 
son, the right side of the heart is weaker than the left. — 
The arteries, as they divide and subdivide in their course, 
become weaker in their coats in proportion to the diminu- 
tion of their size, till at length they terminate in the minute 
branches called the capillary vessels, which do not possess 
any pulsating power, and many of which do not contain red 
blood. Diminutive, however, as these branches may be, 
yet it is by them that. the most important offices are per- 
formed ; by them the different parts of the body are nour- 
ished, whether bone, flesh, nerve, or skin; by them the va- 
rious fluids are secreted, however different in appearance 
they may be ; by them the most ghastly wounds are heal- 
ed, and often in a remarkably short space of time ; and all 
these various offices are performed not only by the same 
class of vessels, but by the same fluid, the blood. Having 
accomplished these important purposes, the capillary arter- 
ies terminate in equally minute vessels, called the capillary 
veins; and so abundant are these diminutive vessels that 
the finest point of the finest needle cannot be plunged into 
the body without penetrating some of them. By the time 
the blood reaches the veins it becomes dark and impure, 
and loaded with carbon : the office of the veins, therefore, 
is to return it to the heart to be again purified. The circu- 
lation, however, becomes much slower as it is further re- 
moved from the impulsive power of the heart, and the veins, 
which are supposed to contain two-thirds of the whole 
blood circulating in the system, are consequently much 
more numerous than the arteries : they do not, however, 
possess the same strength in their coats as the arteries, nor 
have they any pulsating power. They have, however, the 
assistance of other agents in propelling the blood to its des- 
tination. The greater number of them possess valves, 
which admit the blood to pass in one direction, but effectu- 
ally prevents its passing in any other. It was, indeed, from 



158 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

reflecting on the structure and necessary office of these 
valves that led the immortal Harvey to discover the circu- 
lation of the blood. Another circumstance peculiar to the 
veins is their situation, being mostly near the surface of the 
body, whilst the arteries are generally deep seated. The 
wisdom of this provision is evident: it. is well known that 
in wounds it is readily ascertained if an artery be wounded 
by the jet of blood that ensues, and which even from an 
artery of small size is very considerable, and the danger of 
death from bleeding is often great in consequence of the 
force with which the blood is thrown into these vessels. — 
Now such being the danger attending the division of arter- 
ies, it was necessary to remove them as much as possible 
from the risk of injury, and accordingly they are almost in- 
variably deep sealed, and when thejr do approach the surface 
it is in parts least likely to be injured. Thus round these 
important vessels nature throws a thick muscular covering, 
and protects the whole by a mantle so sensitive as to give 
warning to the least attack. The veins, however, do not 
require this care ; in them the circulation is languid, and 
their wounds are comparatively unimportant and unattended 
with danger, for the blood generally stops, without assist- 
ance, from its coagulating quality. It is also of importance 
that the greater portion of the veins should be situated near 
the surface, in order to receive the influence of the atmos- 
pheric pressure, which greatly assists the motion of the 
blood ; and it has also been found that veins possess a pow- 
er of absorption in common with a particular order of ves- 
sels called the absorbents; thus these various purposes are 
effected by the relative position of the veins and arteries. 
The structure of the veins is very different from that of the 
arteries ; for, whilst the latter are thick, elastic, and com- 
posed of three coats, the former are thin, inelastic, and 
composed only of two coverings. But although thin they 
are yet capable of affording great resistance to pressure. 

We have seen that the blood is sent to all parts of the 
body by the action of the heart and arteries, but what is the 
cause of its return 1 First in importance is the law of hy- 
drostatics, " that all fluids support their level." Thus the 
same law by which springs arise, and streams are produced, 
and rivers flow towards the sea, is brought to bear in the 
living system, and enables the blood in the arteries to sup- 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 159 

port that in the veins. This effect is greatly assisted by the 
action of the valves in supporting the column of blood. 
The blood thus supported and propelled by the arteries, as- 
sisted by atmospheric pressure, must go somewhere, as the 
valves prevent return ; it goes, therefore, where alone a va- 
cancy is afforded, and that is in the right auricle of the 
heart, which has just propelled its contents into the ventri- 
cle. To these several forces may be added a power of suc- 
tion the heart possesses whenever the chest is enlarged in 
respiration. 

The manner in which the chyle is mixed up with the 
blood, so that its color quickly disappears, is worthy of par- 
ticular notice. Tt is owing, indeed, to the great agitation 
the blood receives, and to the irregularity of the heart's in- 
ternal surface. When the auricles contract, their contents 
are, in a great measure, discharged into the ventricles, but 
a portion is thrown back into the veins, which constitutes 
what is called the venous pulse, and may sometimes be 
seen in the jugular veins. In like manner, when the ven- 
tricles contract a portion of their contents is thrown back 
into the auricles, at any rate that part of it situated behind 
the valves. By these means an agitation is produced which 
effectually mixes these different fluids together. 
* It has been ascertained that the veins possess a power of 
absorption in common with a numerous class of vessels 
called the absorbents, or lymphatics. These vessels arc- 
very minute, and are distributed throughout the whole body ; 
they generally accompany the veins, and, like them are 
furnished with valves. 



160 STRUCTURE 07 THE SHEEP. 



SECTION XXIII. 



ON RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS. 

The phenomena of respiration, which is carried on from 
the first minute after birth to the last of existence, consists 
of two acts, inspiration and expiration. The former, that 
of inhaling the atmosphere, is accomplished mostly by the 
diaphragm, which, in its relaxed state, is convex towards 
the chest. As its fibres contract, the muscle flattens, and 
thus enlarges in a considerable degree the cavity of the tho- 
rax. A vacuum is thus produced, or rather a tendency to- 
wards it; for the air rushes into the lungs, and the blood 
into the heart; and, as the lungs are elastic and spongy in 
~their nature, they become closely adapted to the enlarge- 
ment of the chest, and prevent any vacuum from taking 
place between them and the sides of the thorax. The dia- 
phragm is thus the chief agent in the act of inspiration, al- 
though in some degree assisted by the intercostal muscles, 
which raise the chest, and also, when the breathing is vio- 
lently excited, by those muscles that in quadrupeds attach 
the fore extremities to the body. The air thus thrown in- 
to the lungs throughout its internal surface, and, having ful- 
filled it office; is forced out by the aci of expiration. This 
part of the process is effected chiefly by means of the elas- 
ticity of the lungs, which acts as soon as the diaphragm be- 
comes passive, assisted, however, in some degree by the 
elastic cartilages of the chest, and occasionally by the ab- 
dominal muscles. 

Atmospheric air consists of unequal parts of two aeriform 
fluids, viz., four-fifths of nitrogen or azote, and one-fifth of 
oxygen in each 100 parts ; besides which it contains other 
heterogeneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, aqueous 
exhalations, electric matter, and carbonic acid gas. It ev- 
erywhere surrounds and embraces the globe, extending, in 
the opinion of some, a distance of forty-five miles, and in 
that of others a much greater height. Its gravity differs 
very much at different times and in different places, being 
heavier on a clear than on a close day, and also in low pla- 
ces than in lofty ones. The small portion of carbonic acid 
gas which the atmosphere contains is not chemically, but 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 161 

mechanically mixed with it. This gas is evolved by the 
fermentation of beer, and the decomposition of vegetables, 
and is often found in wells and deep places. It is much 
heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in these 
low places by its gravity. A lighted candle placed in this 
gas is immediately extinguished ; so that it is used as a 
safeguard in descending into these low and foul places ; for 
whatever will not support combustion will not support life, 
It is not a' simple gas, like oxygen, but is formed by the 
union of carbon and oxygen. 

Nitrogen or azote is a simple gas, but its use in the at- 
mosphere seems to be principally of a passive nature, being 
for the purpose of diluting the oxygen and rendering it less 
stimulating: it will not alone support life or combustion, 
but is chemically mixed with the oxygen. Oxygen is es- 
sential for the support of life and combustion ; for if air be 
deprived of it no animal can live, nor will a candle remain 
lighted. It is abundantly furnished by plants and shrubs, 
which thus restore the loss of it occasioned by animals. — 
When a flame is exposed to this gas it greatly increases in 
brilliancy; and when venous blood is submitted to' it, it 
quickly becomes florid. / 

We have before shown that all the blood in the body was 
in its turn carried from the heart to the lungs by means of 
the pulmonary artery, which divides and subdivides into the 
smallest branches, and terminates in small capillary veins, 
which, coalescing, become larger, and convey the blood 
again to the heart by the pulmonary veins. Before it reach- 
es these veins, however, an important change takes place : 
the blood proceeds from the heart in a black and impure 
state ; it returns reddened and purified ; it is submitted in 
its course to the action of the air in the air-cells, not by ac- 
tual contact, but through the membrane which forms these 
cells : and by this means the important change is effected. 

There is, we well know, a considerable difference be- 
tween the expired and the inspired air ; the former it hot, 
the latter cold ; this is healthy, that injurious ; one will 
support combustion and life, the other is unfit for breathing, 
and will extinguish a flame. There is but little difference 
in quantity between the air in its different states, but the 
oxygen in expired air has nearly disappeared and carbonic 
acid gas is found in its stead ; it also contains much aque- 



162 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

ous vapour, which is condensed in a visible form, at a tem- 
perature of 60 deg. Thus, although the carbonic acid gas 
is much heavier than common air, partly from the aqueous 
vapour which the expired air contains being much lighter, 
but principally from its own increased temperature, the ex- 
pired air, notwithstanding its carbonic aid, is yet specifically 
lighter than the atmosphere ; and consequently rises up- 
wards, and thus, in a great measure, is prevented from be- 
ing respired a second time. It has been found by experi- 
ment with a portion of atmospheric air, containing 80 parts 
of nitrogen, 18 of oxygen, and 2 of carbonic acid, that, on 
being respired, the nitrogen continued the same, but the 
carbonic acid was increased to 13 parts, and the oxygen 
reduced to 5 ; whence it appeared that 11 parts of carbonic 
acid were substituted for 13 of oxygen, 2 parts having en- 
tirely disappeared. Thus the disappearance of the greater 
portion of the oxygen was accounted for by its being con- 
verted into carbonic acid ; but there remained a small por- 
tion, whose absence could not be thus explained, more par- 
ticularly as Sir H. Davy calculated that about 32 ounces of 
oxygen were necessary for 24 hours' expenditure in a man ; 
but only 26| ounces are requisite for the formation of even 
37 ounces of carbonic acid gas, giving us an unexplained 
surplus of 5J ounces of oxygen, during the above period. 
By some it was supposed that this surplus oxygen united 
with the hydrogen thrown off by the blood, and is thus con- 
verted into watery vapour: by others it is held, that this 
oxygen is absorbed by the blood, and enters the circulation. 
Carbonic acid gas is exhaled from the lungs in different 
quantities during different periods of the day, being genera- 
ted in the greatest quantity about noon, decreasing in the 
morning. It also increases in man by taking animal food. 
Sir H. Davy contended that a small portion of nitrogen 
is absorbed by the blood; but this has been denied by oth- 
ers. The chief use of nitrogen, however, is to dilute the 
oxygen ; for if the latter is inspired pure a sense of warmth 
is felt in the chest, the heat of the skin is raised, the pulse 
quickened, and other symptoms of excitement produced. — 
A given quantity of oxygen will, however, support life 
longer than the same quantity of atmospheric air. It has 
been computed that, in the course of tweniy-four hours, 
about 2 lbs. 8 ozs. of oxygen is consumed by a man. After 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 163 

an ordinary respiration a considerable quantity of air still 
remains — perhaps four-fifths, one-fifth having been expired. 

Having mentioned the changes that take place in the at- 
mosphere, we must next consider in what manner the blood 
becomes so altered by its passage through the lungs. 

The blood, as it traverses through the body, gradually 
becomes darker; it is loaded with carbon, and is rendered 
unfit for the circulation, and in this state it is called venous 
blood. If venous blood, taken out of the body, be exposed 
to oxygen, it quickly becomes red ; and so it does if expo- 
sed to the atmosphere, but not so rapidly. So, likewise, if 
arterial blood be exposed to carbonic acid, it quickly ac- 
quires the color and character of venous blood. In the 
same manner is the color of the blood changed in the 
lungs ; thus the principal use of respiration appears to be 
to free the blood from its impurities; and this is effected 
although the air and the blood do not actually come in con- 
tact. It was found, that if blood in a common bladder were 
exposed to the atmosphere for some time, it acquired a 
coat of florid blood ; and thus, as the membrane lining the 
air-cells is by no means so thick as that of the bladder, 
there is no longer any difficulty in accounting for the 
change taking place. It has been the subject of some dis- 
pute as to when the change, or rather exchange, takes 
place, some contending that the carbon unites with the oxy- 
gen in the air-cells, whilst others maintain that the oxygen 
enters the blood, and there unites with the carbon, forming 
carbonic acid gas, which is then exhaled into the air-cells. 
It was found, however, that if venous blood were put with- 
in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump a quantity of car- 
bonic acid escapes ; thus proving the presence of this gas 
in the blood, and supporting the second theory. And as 
there appears to be a greater quantity of oxygen abstracted 
from the atmosphere than can be accounted for by the for- 
mation of carbonic acid, we must conclude that a portion 
mingles with the blood and enters the circulation ; which 
theory agrees with the fact, that it has recently been dis- 
covered, by correct analyses, that both venous and arterial 
blood contains carbonic acid, nitrogen, and oxygen ; but 
that the latter gas is most abundant in arterial and the for- 
mer in venous blood. 

Although the action of the heart is much more frequent 



164 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 

than that of the chest in respiration, yet there is a most in- 
timate connexion between the one and the other; for, be- 
sides the changes which we have spoken of in the blood, it 
rushes into the heart when the chest is expanded, and 
when, from any cause, respiration is delayed, the pulse be- 
comes less frequent and more languid in consequence of 
the obstruction in the current of the blood. Thus, in vio- 
lent fits of coughing, the chest collapses, the air is expelled, 
and the blood not being purified, is unfit for circulation, and 
the consequence is the veins of the head become distended, 
and, in man, the person becomes red or black in the face, 
and sometimes a blood-vessel has ruptured and death su- 
pervened. 

THE PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT. 

This important operation is effected by means of respir- 
ation, the chemical process carried on in the lungs. 

The sensation of heat is derived from the presence of an 
extremely subtle fluid called caloric, the panicles of which 
have a tendency to repel each other and unite with other 
substances. Thus, if we touch a body whose temperature 
is lower than that of our hand, caloric passes from the 
hand to this substance, and the sensation of cold is experi- 
enced : and if, on the contrary, the temperature of the sub- 
stance is higher, we feel a degree of heat from the passage 
of caloric into the hand. It is a singular fact, that this cal- 
oric may exist in two different states — the one in a free or 
sensible form, the other in a latent or combined form. — 
Thus two substances may appear to be of the same temper- 
ature, and yet one may contain a much greater degree of 
caloric than the other, but so combined with the substance 
that it is not sensible to the touch. If, however, the object 
be exposed to the influence of some chemical agent, its la- 
tent coloric may be set free or rendered sensible. For in- 
stance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed together, al- 
though each fluid were before cold, the mixture is raised 
to a high temperature, and caloric is evolved. In the fer- 
mentation of malt liquors the temperature of the liquid is 
raised with the process, and carbonic acid is produce-d ; and 
whenever, indeed, this material is formed, heat is evolved. 
Animal heat is kept up and supported by the chemical union 
of these two substances, oxygen and carbon — the same that 



STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 165 

produces combustion in our fires and candles. Carbon may 
be considered as the fuel, not only in ordinary combina- 
tion, but also in the animal economy, whilst oxygen may 
be regarded as the fire ; and, in fact, this agent, throughout 
nature, is the cause of what appears to be destruction, but 
is, in fact, only change of form ; such, indeed, is its ten- 
dency to combine with other substances. Carbon is sup- 
plied by the food, and it is necessary that sufficient should 
be furnished to counteract the consuming tendency of oxy- 
gen, which would otherwise gradually waste and destroy 
the system. In cold weather and cold climates more oxy- 
gen is taken into the lungs, the air being more condensed, 
and a greater waste of the system Would be the consequence 
were it not for the fact that the appetite is increased, and 
more food is taken, particularly that which contains most 
carbon. This accounts for the fact of the people in cold 
countries having such a great inclination for oily food, 
which consists chiefly of carbon, whilst those in hot cli- 
mates dislike fat of every description, and prefer a vegeta- 
ble diet : thus the functions of the lungs and the stomach 
most intimately agree. In cold weather a large fire must 
be kept up to preserve the animal warmth, and the digest- 
ive organs furnish the fuel, or otherwise the tissues of the 
body would be wasted or consumed. 



SECTION XXV. 
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 

The skin of the sheep, like that of most other animals, is 
composed of three coats. The external coat is called the 
cuticle, or scarf-skin. It is very tough, and destitute of 
feeling, and is pierced by innumerable holes for the pas- 
sage of wool and yolk. On other animals, the principal 
secretions from the skin are hair and insensible perspira- 
tion ; but the skin of the sheep has large sebaceous glands, 
from which the secretion is more oily and abundant than 
on other animals, and is called volk. 



166 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 

The next coat is called the mucus coat, from its pulpy 
appearance. It is in this coat that the nerves of the skin 
terminate, and it is therefore the seat of external sensation. 
The color of the mucus coat, and of the hair or wool which 
passes through it, are frequently much alike, and, there- 
fore, it is ordinarily supposed that the coloring matter of 
the wool or hair is communicated to it from this layer. — 
But this seems to be a mistake. By inspection of the ap- 
pendix, it will be seen that the dark color of hair is com- 
municated to it merely by its ingredients being differently 
proportioned from those of light hair ; and the color "of 
wool is doubtless determined in the same manner; and 
as dark hair is frequently secreted from a light colored 
skin, it seems very evident that its color does not depend 
upon that of the skin. 

The third, or innermost layer, is called the cutis, or true 
skin. It is a dense, firm, elastic membrane, fitting closely 
to the body, and capable of yielding to the various motions, 
and to external resistance. It is composed mostly of gela- 
atine. It is insoluble in cold water, but may be dissolved 
by boiling. It is in this skin that the glands which secrete 
the wool and yolk and horns and hoofs are placed. 

The caloric, which is disengaged from the skin of the 
sheep, is considered to be equal to about one-seventh part 
of that which is emitted from the skin of man. This ari- 
ses from the non-conducting power of the wool, and is a 
wise and kind provision of nature well explaining the means 
by which the animal is enabled to endure many hardships 
from vicissitudes of the weather. 

Whether a thick skin or a thin one is preferable, is a 
matter about which there is a difference of opinion. The 
New Leicester. and the Cheviot are commended for having 
thin mellow skins. On the other hand the Cotswold are 
considered more hardy than the New Leicester or Dishley 
breed, on account of their having thick, mellow, silvery 
skins ; and doubtless a moderately thick mellow skin is 
preferable to a thin one, more capable of withstanding the 
various vicissitudes of the weather. 

The thickness of the skin may be ascertained in some 
measure by the thickness of the ears. The New Leicester 
and the Cheviot with thin skins have thin ears. Different 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 167 

breeds of Merinos differ in the thickness of their skins, and 
the thickness of their ears appears to correspond. 

COVERING OF THE PRIMITIVE SHEEP. 

In all the regions over which the patriarchs roamed, 
and extending northward through the greater part of Eu- 
rope and Asia, among the most unimproved breeds of 
sheep, the sheep is externally covered with hair, but under- 
neath is wool, of various degrees of fineness on different 
breeds, from which, in most cases, the hair is easily separa- 
ted. This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good 
Hope, and also in South America. 

Also, sheep of almost every variety have at times been 
in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London ; but 
there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool, 
though exceedingly small, has not been found at the bot- 
tom of the hair. — -(Youatt.) 

These circumstances render it probable that the covering 
of the primitive sheep consisted of both hair and wool ; and 
that on the best improved breeds the hairy portion of the 
fleece has been mostly bred out by careful selection and 
management. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

WOOL AND ITS PROPERTIES. 

FELTING. 

In ancient times, the people of most northern climates 
clothed themselves with the skins of animals. In winter, 
the fur or wool was turned inwards. 

This practice is continued among the peasants of Russia 
to this day; many of them make use of sheep skins with 
the wool turned inwards, for their ordinary clothing in win- 
ter. These skins were called among the Saxons, frpm 
whom we derive our language, felts (i. e. skins). So that, 
strictly speaking, the word felting means manufacturing a 



168 PROPERTIES OF WOOL, 

skin or covering ; but is now generally used in the same 
sense as the word fulling. 

The phenomena of the felting properties of wool long re- 
mained a mystery. This gave rise to many speculations 
as to the cause of it. To] M. Monge, the distinguished 
French chemist, are we indebted for the first correct view 
of the structure of the fibre of wool. He asserted "that the 
surface of each fibre of wool is formed of lamella? or little 
plates, which cover each other from the root to the point, 
much in the same manner as the scales of a fish cover that 
animal from the head to the tail. 

By the perseverance of Mr. Youatt, the author of a val- 
uable treatise on British sheep husbandry, Monge's theory 
was shown to be correct. The construction of a superior 
achromatic telescope by Mr. Powel, of London, enabled 
him to determine this fact. In February, 1835, Messrs. 
Youatt, Powel, and several other persons present, ascer- 
tained with this telescope that the edges of wool are hooked, 
or more properly serrated ; that they resembled the teeth 
of a fine saw, with all the projecting edges pointing in a di- 
rection from root to point; and that consequently, in the 
process of fulling, the fibres of wool can move only root 
end foremost. 

The serrations of wool are the great causes of its felting 
quality. But its elasticity, pliability, and the spiral curve 
contribute greatly to render it more perfect. Hence the 
fine wool of the Barbary sheep, which is very glossy and 
perfect in every respect, except that it wants the spiral 
curve, is inferior in value to the Merino, which has many 
spiral curves. 

In order to complete the felting process, the presence of 
soap or moisture is necessary ; these add greatly to the co- 
hesion of wool or fur. Hence, when cloth or stockings are 
simply placed in water, and are suffered to remain a con- 
siderable time, they will frequently be fulled by this means. 
The variations of heat from day to day will cause an alter- 
nate expansion and contraction of the wool, so as to cause 
the felting process to proceed. 

By means- of these qualities of wool, and the alternate 
pressure and relaxation of the hand or machinery, the fibres 
of wool are compelled to imitate the process of weaving, 
being driven root end foremost in every direction, so as to 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 169 

form a solid and firm body, which cannot be unravelled, 
and which is far superior to what can be obtained merely 
by weaving. 

In order to a more perfect knowledge of the qualities of 
wool, it will be necessary to notice its formation and prop- 
erties more particularly. 

FORMATION OF WOOL. 

Wool is secreted from glands which are placed in the 
cutis vera or true skin, and according to the analysis of 
Scherer, is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy- 
gen, and sulphur. Each fibre of wool is composed of a 
number of distinct filaments ranged side by side. Mr. 
Bakewell has remarked, " that hair is frequently observed 
to split at its points into distinct fibres. A division is also 
sometimes seen in the fibre of wool. In one hair, I dis- 
tinctly perceived fifteen of these divisions or fibres, lying 
parallel to each other." 

The cause of these divisions seems to be, that the glands 
which secrete wool are, like some other glands, divided in- 
to distinct divisions, and each of these divisions doubtless 
secretes a filament of wool by itself; and these filaments, 
in their fresh state, are agglutinated together by the action 
of the skin, before the wool comes to the air. In the same 
manner, the ducts which convey the gall from the various 
divisions of the liver, all unite and convey the gall into one 
common receptacle, the gall bladder. 

Whether wool is hollow, (i. e. tubular,) or not, has not 
been determined ; but moisture may pass to its different 
parts by capillary attraction, between the different filaments. 

Whatever the diameter of wool is when formed, so it 
remains; it does not grow in diameter like a tree, though 
its filaments lie side by side, like the grains of a tree. And 
if the ( roots of a large hair be examined, it will be found 
that at bottom it comes to a point, giving room for a cen- 
tral filament and the arrangement of others around it, much 
like the grains of a tree ; and as there is nothing to keep 
these filaments asunder, there seems to he no reason to 
imagine that either hair or wool is tubular. 

The fibre of wool is circular; it differs materially in di- 
ameter on different breeds, and also in different pans of the 
same fleece. 

The component parts of wool and hair are precisely sim- 



170 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 



ilar; but these component parts are differently proportioned 
in these two articles. Hence, hair is generally opake; but 
wool is usually semitransparent. 

The following observations by Mr. Youatt Will illustrate 
the subject: " The fibres of wool, when cleansed from 
grease, are semi-transparent ; their surface in some places 
is polished ; in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect 
the rays of light in a pleasing manner. Their exterior pol- 
ish varies much in different wools, and in wools of the 
same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal 
is in good condition, and the fleece healthy, the appear- 
ance of the fibre is really brilliant. But when the sheep 
has been half starved, the wool seems to have sympathized 
with the state of the constitution, and either a wan pale 
light, or scarcely any is reflected. 

" As a general rule, the filament is most transparent in 
the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It 
increases with the improvement of the breed and the fine- 
ness and healthiness of the fleece. Nevertheless, some 
wools have different degrees of transparency and opacity, 
which do not appear to affect their value and utility. It is 
the difference of transparency in the same fleece, or in the 
same filament, that is chiefly to be noticed as affecting the 
value' of the wool." 

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OP WOOL. 





SERRATIONS. 

No. 1, a fibre of South Down wool as a transparent ob- 
ject ; No 2, the same, as opaque. No. 3, a fibre of Merino 
wool, transparent; No. 4, the same, opaque. 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 171 

The manner in which the serrations of wool are formed, 
seems to be, that the wool glands, like other glands,* have 
a motion ; that is, at the time of the formation of the long- 
est point of the serration, the wool glands must rise some- 
what in the centre, and expand, so as to put forth the lar- 
gest bulk of woolly fibre, and then gradually sink down 
again in the centre, so as to form only the smallest diame- 
ter of the wool. And as hair or wool is formed in glands 
which is formed in the cutis vera, or true skin, this motion 
will be necessary, in order to expel the hair or wool through 
the two outer coats of the skin, and also to compress the fila- 
ments. 

The serrations are somewhat differently shaped on dif- 
ferent kinds of wool and hair. Hence, hair being of a 
more uniform texture, is less pliable than wool, which has 
deeper serrations. And the greater the number of serra- 
tions in a given length, the greater is the pliability of the 
wool. Hence, too, the deeper and sharper the serrations 
of wool are according to its diameter, the harsher will be 
the wool, even though there be a plentiful supply of yolk. 

1 have sometimes noticed in crossing two full blood Me- 
rino breeds of sheep together, that although the wool of the 
cross breeds was equal in fineness to that of either kind by 
itself, and was very curly, it was excessively harsh. 

In using a ram which was a half and half cross of this 
kind, he communicated this defect to his progeny; and 
their wool was at the same time remarkably curly, and had 
abundance of yolk. 

A cross between the Escurial Saxon breed and other 
breeds of Merinos, sometimes produces some other defect 
of the skin, which makes such cross bred sheep very ten- 
der, and sensitive to cold. 

These circumstances seem to show the propriety of 
breeding each kind of tine wooled sheep by itself. We 
can then know at all times what to depend upon, as to the 
quality of wool. In Spain, they have, for many centuries, 
pursued that course which by experience they found would 
produce the l?est wools, and they have bred each kind by 
itself; and their long experience should not be disregarded. 

By Mr. Youatt's examination of wool with the micro- 

* See Kieberaod's Physiology, p. 262^. 



172 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 

scope, the diameter, and number of serrations in an inch, 
of several kinds of wool, were found to be as follows: 

Diameter. Serrations in an inch. 

Merino, 760th of an inch, 2400 

Saxon, (Escurial) 840th " 2720 

South Down, 600th " 2080 

Improved Leicester, 500th " 1860 

Australian Picklock > fl h „ 240Q 
grade Saxon, (Lscunal) y 

As to the Merino, he remarks, " The fibre thus looked 
at, assumed a flattened, ribband like form ; it was of a 
pearl grey color, darker towards the centre, and with faint 
lines across it. The edges were evidently hooked, or more 
properly serrated ; they resembled the teeth of a fine saw." 

Of the Saxon, he observes: "The greater number of 
serrations, with equal prominence when compared with the 
Merino, accounts for its superior felling properties." 

Of the South Down he says : "The fibre is clearly lar- 
ger : it is the 660th of an inch in diameter. The serrations 
differ in character ; they are larger, but not so acute ; they 
appear almost as if they had been rounded ; they have a 
rhomboidal, and not a hooked character." 

The Editor of the Genesee Farmer remarks that, " The 
South Down is a valuable wool, but its felling power is in- 
ferior, and it is little used in the manufacture of the best 
broadcloths." 

Of the Improved Leicester, Mr. Youatt^says, " The la- 
mellae are superficial and irregular, differently formed in 
different parts ; a few like small spines running along the 
surface of the fibre, while other prominences were round- 
ed f 

As to the Picklock Australian grade Saxon,. Mr. Yotatt 
says : " The serrations of this sample were very sharp, and 
in appearance almost barbed. There is a marked differ- 
ence, not only in the length, but in the structure of the Sax- 
on wool, as cbtained direct from, Germany, and that import- 
ed from Australia. The fibre of the Australian wool is 
considerably longer, but not so fine : the serrations are not 
so numerous ; tUey are of a different character, seemingly 
giving pliability and softness to the one [the Saxon], and 
Jettiness to the other [the Australian]. 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 173 

" So far as the examinations have proceeded, the serra- 
tions are sharper and more numerous in the felting wools 
than in others, and in proportion as the felting property 
exists." 

Of the Merino, as compared with the wool of the bat, Mr. 
Youatt says : '* Though the lamellae were not so distinct on 
the Merino as on that of the bat, yet the cone-like points 
were distinctly visible, forming a series of cup-like inden- 
tations, with their projecting edges pointing from the root 
to the point.' ' 

As to the formation of the Leicester and South Down 
fibres of wool, it may be observed, that in the formation 
of these two kinds of wool, there must be a mechanical 
movement of the skin in forming the serrations, or the ser- 
rations would not be so very different in their appearance 
on the same fibre of wool, in its texture lengthwise. It is 
evident that wool does not grow into a particular shape, 
like the leaves of a tree, which are formed precisely alike 
on the same tree ; whereas, wool is a secretion like horn, 
and is put into a particular shape by the action of the glands 
from which it springs. 

As every new cross of different breeds may form wool 
glands which will make differently and badly formed serra- 
tions, such crosses should be made with caution. 

SPIRAL CURVE. 

The manner in which the spiral curves of wool are form- 
ed, seems to be, that the opposite sides of each wool gland 
are alternately in a more active state than the other side : 
and the extreme regularity of these spiral curves shows that 
this action is very regular in most breeds of sheep, and es- 
pecially in Merinos of pure blood. 

Wool generally has more or less spiral curves ; but not 
always; the wool of some breeds, as that of the Barbary 
sheep and the Wallachian sheep, is straight. But hair is 
more generally straight. 

The spiral curve is a valuable property of wool. It adds 
greatly to the elasticity of wool, and multiplies the oppor- 
tunities for the interlacing of fibres, and thereby greatly in- 
creases its felting properties, and the strength of the articles 
felted. 

In most kinds of wool, especially in that of pure bred Me- 



174 PEOrERTIES OF WOOL. 

rinos, it has been found that the number of curves in a giv- 
en space is very nearly in proportion to the diameter of the 
fibre ; the smaller the diameter of the fibre, the greater is 
the number of the spiral curves. Hence, the comparative 
fineness of wool may be nearly ascertained by counting the 
number of curves in an inch. 

In Mr. Lafoun's work on the German management of 
sheep, are the following observations : 

'* Those breeding pure Saxons inspect their flocks three 
times in a year ; before winter, when the selection of 
lambs is made ; in the spring, and at shearing time. Each 
sheep is placed in its turn on a kind of table, and examined 
carefully as to the growth, the elasticity, the pliability, the 
brilliancy, and the fineness of the wool. The latter is as- 
certained by means of a micrometer. It being found that 
there was an evident connection between the fineness of the 
fibre and the number of curves, this was more accurately 
noted, and the following table was constructed. 

" The fleece was sorted in the manner usual in France. 
The fineness of the Superelecta, or Picklock, is represented 
by a space corresponding with the number 7 on the instru- 
ment." 
Sort. Name. Curves in an inch. Diameter of fibre. 

1. Superelecta, 27 to 29 7 or l-840th of an inch. 

2. Electa, 24 to 28 8 or l-735th " 

3. Prima, 20 to 23 9 or I-600ih " 

4. Secunda prima 19 to 19 10 or l-558th " 

5. Secunda, 16 to 17 1 1 or l-534th " 

6. Tertia, 14 to 15 ll£orl-510ih 4 
The lamb or sheep, after being duly examined, is mark- 
ed upon the ears, and samples of its wool are preserved in 
papers, and these papers are numbered, so that by refer- 
ence to the breeding register, the quality of its wool, its 
age, and relation to others in the flock, may at any time be 
ascertained. 

The spiral curve is a valuable property of wool, and care 
should be used in breeding so as to preserve it, and" also not 
l^sen it by systematic high feeding. 

ELASTICITY OF WOOL. 

If a fibre of wool, or any other substance, be drawn out 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 175 

beyond its natural length, and will, without breaking, re- 
turn to its natural shape, it is said to be elastic. This prop- 
erty depends chiefly upon the component parts of any sub- 
stance, and their relative proportions. Hence, though wool, 
and the feather of a quill, are composed of precisely simi- 
lar ingredients, wool is very elastic ; but the feather of a 
quill is destitute of this property. Two specimens of wool, 
of the same fineness and evenness, will often differ much 
in their elasticity and pliability ; and doubtless this arises 
from some small difference in the proportions of their com- 
ponent parts. 

Evenness of texture is necessary, in order to obtain the 
most perfect elasticity of wool. When a sheep is kept in 
high order in one part of the year, and in low condition ai 
other periods of the year, the size and strength of the fibres 
of its wool will vary in different parts, and one part will 
break before the other can be fully extended. 

The usefulness and value of wool depend chiefly upon 
its elasticity and pliability ; and these properties render it 
far superior to hair. By these qualities it is admirably 
adapted to all the purposes of felting and the finishing of 
hats, cloths, &c. 

SOFTNESS. 

The softness of wool depends much upon its comparative 
fineness. Hence, high feeding ever has a tendency to ren- 
der it coarser and harsher. 

But there are several causes which make a different de- 
gree of softness in wools of the same fineness. The dif- 
ferent proportions of its component parts doubtless render 
some kinds hard and wiry, whilst others of the same fine-' 
ness are soft and mellow. For the same reason, the hair 
of the head of man is generally soft, but that of the beard 
is always comparatively hard and wiry. (See Appendix.) 

Also, by the preceding observations, it will appear that 
the softness of wool depends very much upon the form of 
its serrations ; wools of the same fineness, and the same 
quantity of yolk, varying much in their softness from the 
difference in their serrations. 

The soil, also, upon which sheep are pastured, some- 
times renders the wool harsh. The chalky soils in Eng- 
land, not being well covered with herbage, absorb the yolk, 



176 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 

and thus expose the wool to the influence of the weather, 
and render it harsh and brittle. But the limestone soils of 
the United Stales are generally well covered with herbage, 
and are among the best for growing fine wool. 

Hence, also, when sheep on mountains, or very low 
lands, are much exposed to cold misty and rainy weather, 
the secretion of yolk is lessened, and the wools of such 
sheep are generally harsh, and sometimes wiry; for wool 
owes much of its softness to the presence of a plentiful sup- 
ply of yolk. Yolk preserves the softness of the fibre, and 
sheathes it from the external influences of soil, air, and 
moisture. 

The salving of sheep with a mixture of tar and grease, 
as practised in England and Scotland, has the same useful 
tendency. Hence, if fine-wooled sheep are kept in uni- 
form middling good order, and are well sheltered, the ne- 
cessary supply of yolk will be produced on young and mid- 
dle aged sheep, and the softness of the wool will be pre- 
served. But on old sheep the secretion of yolk diminishes 
in quantity, and the wool becomes comparatively hard and 
inelastic. 

As wools of the same fineness frequently differ in their 
quality as to softness, so much as to make 15 or 20 per 
cent, difference in their value, every circumstance which 
can affect this quality should be particularly attended to by 
those whose principal object is, the rearing a superior qual- 
ity of wool ; and those should be selected for breeders of 
each sex, which have the softest wool, and whose fleece 
contains the least hair (or jar), provided they have all oth- 
er necessary qualities. 

TRITENESS. 

By this term is meant, an equality of the diameter of the 
fibre of wool from root to point. This quality depends 
principally upon a regular supply of good food, and shelter 
from the inclemency of the weather. If these are both 
provided, the skin will be able at all times to secrete a fibre 
nearly uniform in size. Hence, if at any time the sheep 
be fed much higher than usual, a larger fibre will be produ- 
ced, and such wool will felt unevenly. If food or shelter 
are not provided when necessary, especially in winter, the 
skin will sympathize with other parts of the body, and the 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 177 

wool glands will be unable to secrete as large a fibre as at 
other times; smaller, and consequently weaker portions of 
the fibre will be formed, in which breaches will be made 
when used for manufacturing purposes ; and this defect 
will greatly injure its value. Such wool is termed unsound, 
and will be prized accordingly by the skilful wool buyer. 

COLOR. 

The color of the fleece, or coat of the sheep, like that of 
other animals, seems to be determined principally by the 
influence of light and heat. In the torrid zone, and coun- 
tries bordering nearly upon it, the fleece or coat of the 
sheep is generally black, brown, or reddish. In more north- 
ern climes, white or grey are the prevailing colors, and 
black and brown are exceptions to the general rule. In 
wild races, as the Shetland sheep, it is presented of various 
colors ; and the white hue of our present races is owing, in 
some measure, to the constant practice of breeding only 
from white parents. 

Wools of the purest white are most highly prized by 
manufacturers, for the reason, that those of a black, brown, 
dun, or grey hue, do not receive a perfect fancy dye, and 
therefore can be converted only into black or grey cloths 
or goods. Flock masters, therefore, should breed only 
from rams of a pure white, unless for the sake of domestic 
manufactures, or some particular use. 

FINENESS. 

This term, when applied to wool is wholly comparative. 
The fibre may be considered coarse, when it is more than 
the five hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and very 
fine, when it is less than the nine-hundredth part of an inch 
in diameter, as in some of the choicest samples of Saxon 
Merino. Yet, on some animals, which have wool under- 
neath a covering of hair, but whose wool has not been used 
for manufacturing purposes, the diameter of its fibre is less 
than the twelve-hundredth part of an inch. 

The fineness varies, to a very considerable degree, in 
different parts of the same fleece, and the diameter of the 
same fibre is often exceedingly different at each of its ex- 
tremeties. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that 
the diameter of the outward point is sometimes five times 



178 PROPERTIES OP WOOL. 

greater than that of the centre or root; and, consequently, 
that a given length of pile, taken from the outward point, 
would weigh twenty-five times as much as the same length 
taken from near the root, and cleansed from all yolk and 
grease. This results, from the sheeps having an abun- 
dance of food, at the time of being shorn, and from mod- 
erate cold strengthening the glands of the skin, so as to 
secrete a larger bulk of fibre. 

Grade Merinos often produce seven or eight different 
qualities of wool in one fleece ; whereas that of the pure 
Merino is, in Spain, commonly divided into but four sorts ; 
but the Negretti breed is remarkable for the even fineness 
of its wool, and a well assorted flock of that breed will 
produce only about three qualities of wool. 

Most breeds of sheep may be much improved, by a care- 
ful selection of individuals for breeding, which have fleec- 
es of the most uniform fineness ; and this improvement 
deserves the particular attention of the wool-grower. 

FORM AND QUALITIES OF THE STAPLE. 

The following remarks of Charles L. Fleischman, Esq., 
will fully illustrate this subject :* 

" The wool of sheep does not grow, as does the hair of 
other beasts, in a manner, that every individual hair lakes 
its own direction, but its many threads of wool always unite 
into one little tuft, and each of these again stands in such 
connexion with the rest, as may allow every wool pelt, 
(every fleece) as a whole, to appear like a web. The sin- 
gle tufts we call the staple." 

'* The fleece of an original, (or pure improved Merino.) 
contains, upon a square inch, 40 to 48,000 wool hairs. — 
The fleece, in this epoch, is separated upon the skin in 
small wool divisions, which consist of 2000 or 3000 wool 
hairs, and which are, from root to top, regularly curved, 
equal, fine, connected, and, at the top, ending in an even 
staple. These wool divisions are about as large as one six- 
teenth of a square inch. The yolk is clear, oily, and gives 
the wool a glossy, shiny appearance."' 

'* Mr. Jeppe remarks, in his report on wool, at the 
meeting of German agriculturists, at Munich, Bavaria, held 

*From Patent Office Report for 1848. 



PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 179 

in the year 1 $44, that upon a heavy fleeced animal he 
counted, on one sixteenth of a square inch, 2618, and up- 
pn a thin, flabby fleeced animal, 1018 wool hairs ; the wool 
was nearly equally fine in both, fleeces." 

" The formation of the staple, may be easily discerned 
in the surface of the fleece, which contains on it web-form- 
ed furrows, woolly seams, but will be more noticeable, if 
one lays the same out together, in any place. If we exam- 
ine the fleece more closely, we may discern in it the so 
called strands, (still smaller branches,) in which many 
threads of wool are closely connected. Strands of differ- 
ent forms, different fineness, or an irregular curl, transfer 
these peculiarities to the staple, whereby yet further the 
exterior of the whole fleece is affected. We may, with tol- 
erable certainty, from this form, and from the state of the 
staple, draw a conclusion as to the condition of the threads 
of wool, and correctly assume, that the wool which has a 
good structure of staple, must also possess the other good 
properties, which render it a valuable article. But the in- 
verse of this does not hold, because the condition of the 
sheep, dust and sweat, moist and musty fodder, frequently 
the soaked state of the fleece, &c.,may give to the staple 
a faulty appearance, without affecting the goodness of the 
wool, or being injurious for the whole life time of the an- 
imal." 

" The wool itself appears, in the staple, much shorter 
than it really is, in its extended state, because by its curl it 
is very much contracted. The smaller and more regular 
are the bends of the single threads, the more it allows itself 
to be stretched out, far beyond the length of the staple, 
indeed, to double the unstretchecl length of the same. — 
Such we call wool of a short contracted staple, and such 
as scarcely allows itself to be stretched to half its length, 
or yet less, wool of a long extended staple." 

" The staple itself must approach a cylindrical shape, 
when it is well formed, and be round and smoothly termi- 
nated, (blunt,) on the upper end. The staple often appears 
of greater circumference, that is, more extensive, than it 
really is, while a stronger and larger staple in extent is fre- 
quently composed of a number of small ones." 

"A clear, true wool, which is valued above all, is that 
in which the strands of the staples lie parallel to each oth- 



180 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 

er, because the threads, (fibres) are of equal fineness, and 
form. On the contrary, if the staple comes out strikingly 
pointed, so that it ends' with a hairy point, this shows that 
many hairs (fibres) do not reach ' the top, either because 
they are shorter, or because they have an irregular growth, 
and on this amount, the single strarids do not lie near each 
other. Such uneven grown Wool is called untrue, not clear 
and causes many difficulties in the manufacture. Hence 
we consider this peculiarity as among the principal defects 
of wool." 

" If the points of the staple stand out very far, we say 
that the wool is pointed. If, besides, they are underneath 
pretty strong, and many stick out far, then the surface of 
the fleece has a stiff appearance like a reed, which is like- 
wise a fault." 

" If, on the contrary, the staple is thicker and stronger 
above than below, then too, the single fibres are coarser 
above than below, and thus it is not fitted for an even 
yarn." 

" The curling of the upper end of the staple, by which 
small knobs arise, is also a defect because then the woolly 
fibres are not of equal length and fineness." 

" When the wool is curled more on one place than on 
another, and many staples also stand upright, while some 
are blunt, and others again pointed, this then is a mark of 
the great unevenness of the wool, and the surface of the 
fleece maintains a bushy appearance. It sometimes hap- 
pens, with sheep of very fine, but somewhat long and soft 
wool, when they are poorly fed." 

" Further, the staple must stand upright. It is defec- 
tive, when the wool on the back of the sheep parts and 
hangs down loose on the sides.* It then not only wants 
the necessary compactness, but it is also often washed out 
by rain, on the back, and thus becomes rough, harsh, and 
coarse pointed." 

" Generally a fleece should not open itself, but present 
itself more closed ; the former is always a sign of a thin 
state of the wool." 

" Much as a closed fleece is derived, the surface of the 

•This refers especially to Merinos ; for with the peculiar long wooled 
races of sheep of the lowlands of England and Germany, usually the 
wool more hangs than it stands up. 



PROPERTIES OF WOO£. 181 

same must not appear like a board, because then usually 
the staple is too large and flat and the high degree of fine- 
ness is lost to the woolly fibres. The fleece must more re- 
semble a soft, elastic cushion." 

" If the wool appears, on parting it on the body of the 
animal, as a uniformly woven cloth, and many staples are 
apparently joined into one whole, as it is said, the wool is 
full, and is not therefore of less value ; or when the staplej 
on closer examination, shows continual indentations across 
its whole breadth, it is approved ; for such are always 
signs of evenness, purity and compactness of the fleece." 
" If the surface is not wholly smooth, but is covered 
with little soft knobs, (hard ones they must not be,) as if 
with pearls, then this shows a great softness of the points, 
which is approved. It is called oedewed, and also cauli' 
flower staple. 

Wool is called strongly marked, when the curves of the 
single fibres are very high and perceptible, but are uniform. 
JBut if the curves are uneven, sometimes small and some- 
times large, and many of the small ones run together again 
into the greater, and twist the strands together in particular 
places, so that they appear winding at these points like a 
corkscrew, then the wool is called twisted. This is a worse 
fault, because twisted wool cannot be well spun on the spin- 
ning machines, and does not produce smooth cloth. We 
must therefore labor, to the utmost, to counteract this fault 
which usually affects the withers of the sheep between the 
shoulder-blades. 

" If the particular fibres, strands and staples stand apart 
from each other, without showing much dependence on 
each other, than it is distinguished by the term empty hol~ 
low staple; and if the whole fleece is thus conditioned, a 
hollow fleece. Sheep which are thus affected, in general, 
have only a little wool. The faults of being stranded or 
twisted are often connected with it. 

" When the strands in many places lie closer together 
than in others, and the curves of the particular fibres are 
very different in form and size, the wool is called tangled, 
and in a yet higher degree, felted. This fault may some- 
times arise out of a disease, a sickly, weak state of the 
sheep; and, besides, is probably an original tendency. In 
an unblemished fleece, not a trace of felt is to be met. [In 



182 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 

such a fleece], the fibres of wool belonging to a staple 
should be so perfectly closed together, that the particular 
staples, from the surface of the fleece to the foundation, 
may be fully separated from each other, without the partic- 
ular fibres running up across, or in streaks, from one staple 
to another. 

" The better sort of wool [i. e., that which is produced 
by the various breeds of pure Merino,] shows, after a full 
year's growth, at the time of the usual shearing of wool, 
either short compressed staples, (1, 1|, or at the highest, 2 
inches long,) which are small, blunt, and perfectly cylin- 
drical, but well rounded above, which form a close, nearly 
even, or cauliform surface of the fleeces ; or if it is long 
stapled, slightly curved, it is of a more sleek character.* 
The staples, in this case, are 3 inches or above, long, and 
do not end roundly, but more in a pointed form, and yet 
without having any faulty points. The short stapled, as it 
is called, is the card-wool, as the long staple is the comb- 
wool ; the first is used for making cloths ; the second for 
smooth fabrics [i. e., worsted goods. ]" 

The above very particular description of well-formed 
staples, and of those which are defective, is inserted in or- 
der to show what should be the aim of the breeder, and 
what defects are produced by mismanagement. Defective 
staples are ordinarily produced by improper crosses of va- 
rious breeds, by disease, by want of a regular supply of 
good food and shelter, hard usage, &c. 

On the best breeds of coarse-wooled sheep, and also on 
the various breeds of pure Merino, the staple is generally 
very perfect. Hence, by selecting and adhering to any one 
valuable breed of sheep, whose qualities have been long in- 
bred, with good management, a good staple of wool may 
ever be produced with certainty. 

The qualities most desirable in wool, whether fine or 
coarse, are, trueness, firmness, elasticity, pliability, soft- 
ness, and the spiral curve. The two first mentioned quali- 
ties are the natural result of a regular supply of good food 
and suitable shelter. With these precautions, Saxony and 
Silesia produce wools, which are superior to the best 

* This refers to long fine wool produced by crosses of the Merino with 
lo»g coarse wooled sheep. 



YOLK. 183 

which is produced in Spain, by the migration of flocks, at 
different periods of the year, so as to provide a supply, at 
all times, of fresh pasture, and a temperature which is sel- 
dom very hot, and never very cold. 

Wool is generally injured, in some measure, by being 
kept on hand for a long time before it is manufactured ; it 
becomes harsher and less pliable, and is sometimes injured 
by moths. 



SECTION XXVI. 

YOLK. 

This substance is also called eke, in some parts of the 
United States ; and with much propriety, as it is continu- 
ally eking or oozing out of the skin. The words eke, and 
yolk or yoke, as it is frequently pronounced, appear to be 
derived from the Saxon word eac, which in their language 
is pronounced e-oke. So that between the spelling and the 
pronunciation, the two words eke and yoke or yolk are 
made out of the same word. In the present state of the 
English language, the word eke seems to define this secre- 
tion of the skin with propriety, and the words yolk or yoke 
seem to be the Yorkshire dialect, for the same thing. The 
yolk of wool is a kind of soap, which is composed of potash 
and an adhesive oil, and the potash is supersaturated with 
this oil, and to it are added acetate of potash, muriate of 
potash, and lime in small quantities. That it is principally 
a soap, in which the alkali is supersaturated with oil, any 
persons may convince themselves by putting some alkali, 
either potash or soda, into some rain water, and washing 
some eky wool in it. The eke will be turned into a per- 
fect soap, and the wool made clean with the greatest ease. 

The yolk of wool appears to be useful for three purposes. 

First — It preserves the softness and elasticity of the 
wool. Hence, that kind of yolk which is most abundantly 
saturated with the adhesive oil, is best. It will then adhere 
to the ends of the wool, as well as to that which is near the 



184 YOLK. 

skin, and every part of the wool will be kept lively ; whereas, 
if the yolk is almost nothing but a mere soap, as seems to 
be the case with the yolk of some kinds of sheep, it will be 
washed by the rain out of the ends of the wool, and such 
wool will become harsh or dead. 

Second — The yolk forms a defence against the weather. 
If it is of such a quality that it will not be washed out by 
the rain, it will be for the sheep a complete coat of mail, 
and the severest storms of rain or snow will seldom wet 
through a fleece which is well covered with such yolk. 

In Scotland, after the lambs have been weaned in au- 
tumn, it has been customary to milk the ewes a few weeks, 
and from this milk to make a quantity of butter; and then 
mixing this butter with tar, two or three pounds of butter 
with one of tar, they prepare a kind of artificial yolk, with 
which they smear their sheep, in order to defend them 
against their wintry rains and snows. If they find it profit- 
able to take so much pains to make this artificial yolk, how 
carefully should the breeder of Merinos so breed them to- 
gether as to preserve the proper quantity and quality of the 
yolk upon his sheep ; and one very especial cause for pre- 
serving Merinos pure, is the preservation of the quantity 
and quality of their yolk. 

Third— there is very little taste to the yolk, and yet it 
appears to be, in some measure, a defence against flies and 
worms. The sheep tick and louse seem to be the only an- 
imals which can live comfortably in it. No fly of North 
America will lay its eggs in pure yolk of wool of the Merino. 
It is only when the yolk is mixed with blood, mucus' or 
some other animal matter, that the fly will deposit its eggs 
in it. 

And after the wool is shorn, it Will not be disturbed by 
moths, so long as a moderate portion of the yolk is left in 
it. This, to the wool buyer, is a very useful property of 
yolk ; and he ever buys the wool, making proper allowance 
for yolk and dirt : and buys it readily when it is black 
with yolk, knowing it to be good. And therefore, a large 
proportion of yolk on wool is" disadvantageous, only 
with relation to the expense of transporting it to market. 

On a healthy Merino, the yolk should flow like oil, near- 
ly or quite to the ends of the wool. In such case the yolk 
will defend the wool from the influence of the weaihcr, 



INFLUENCE OF SOIL. 185 

and prevent dead ends of wool. The original breeds of 
Spanish Merinos are very perfect in this respect ; but a 
mixture of the Escurial or Saxon breed, with other breeds 
of Merinos, frequently makes a race on which the wool 
often appears clapped, mashed down, and the yolk is im- 
perfectly formed, and becomes inspissated, before it reach - 
es the ends of the wool. The consequence is, that the 
ends of the wool are deprived of yolk, and an abundance 
of dead ends are produced. Such crosses should be 
avoided. 

Mildness of temperature contributes to the secretion of 
the greatest quantity of yolk, and the truest fibre of wool ; 
and therefore in northern climates, both a plentiful supply 
of good food, and sufficient shelters, should be provided, 
especially for fine wooled sheep, in winter. 

When a flock of sheep is a mixture of several breeds 
of Merinos, the color oif the yolk, with other points, will 
be an useful guide for the selection of those for breeders, 
which appear most desirable. 

More yolk is usually found upon thorough bred Merinos 
than upon those which have been crossed with coarse 
wooled sheep ; and hence an abundance of yolk is ever a 
favorable point upon the Merino ram. 



SECTION XXVII. 
INFLUENCE OF SOIL, FOOD & CLIMATE UPON THE FLEECE. 
INFLUENCE OF SOIL. 

The fleece, or covering of the sheep, is subject to the 
immediate influence of soil, food, and climate, or weath- 
er. Even the fibres of the same fleece vary in different 
parts of the year, from the same influences. 

When sheep graze upon chalky soils, as in some pans 
cf England, the wool becomes harsh, and is wanting in 
pliability, in consequence of the direct influence of the 
lime upon their wool by their lying upon it. The lime 
docs not act as a corrosive upon the wool; but it abeorbg 



186 INFLUENCE OF FOOD. 

the yolk, and thereby renders it brittle and harsh. It is 
possible that all limestone soils which are but thinly cov- 
ered with herbage, may have this effect in a degree; but 
such soils are extremely healthy for sheep. Lime is an 
indispensable constituent of all wholesome grasses ; and 
whether it is received into the stomachin water, or in grass, 
or as a condiment, is immaterial ; the lacteal ducts of a 
healthy sheep will receive into the system no more lime 
than what is necessary for the health and well-being of the 
animal ; and, consequently, the quality of the wool cannot 
be impaired by its being in their food. 

In order to prevent the influence of lime upon the fleeces 
of sheep grazing upon limestone soils, sheep, having aia 
abundance of yolk, should be selected and bred upon tbem. 
With this precaution, the hilly limestone soils of America 
are the best which can be selected for growing fine wool. 
Some of the finest and softest wooied flocks in the United 
States, are pastured upon limestone lands without injury to 
the softness of their fleeces. 

; INFLUENCE OF FOOD. 

The food of the sheep has an immediate and strong in- 
fluence upon the fibre of wool. Mr. Youatt remarks that, 
" the staple of wool, like every other part of the sheep, must 
increase in length or bulk when the animal has an abun- 
dance of nutriment; and, on the other hand, the secretion 
which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when 
sufficient nourishment is not afforded." 

Dr. Parry, of Bath, in England, says, " the fineness of a 
sheep's fleece of a given breed is within certain limits in- 
versely as its fatness, and perhaps also as the quickness 
with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat, has com- 
paratively coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from 
the want of food or from disease, has the finest wool : and 
the very same sheep may, at different times, according to 
these circumstances, have fleeces of all the intermediate 
qualities, from extreme fineness to comparative coarseness." 

The influence of quantity of food upon the fibre of wool, 
has been exemplified in the Paular breed. One hundred 
years ago, the pile of this breed was considered to be equal 
in fineness to that of the Escurial, or any other the finest 
in Spain. But in later years, their proprietors became pos- 



INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 187 

sessed of some privileges of pasturage exclusively belong- 
ing to this flock, such as feeding in the finest pastures in its 
way to the mountains, and the pile of their wool increased 
in size so as to be only on a par with other transhumantes 
flocks. — (Letter from Edward Sheppard to Sir John Sin- 
clair.) 

Hence, on the low rich lands of England and other coun- 
tries, have originated breeds of sheep having coarse and 
very heavy fleeces. 

On the other hand, if the food is deficient in quantity or 
quality, the skin, as well as other parts of the body, will be 
debilitated, and a smaller fibre of wool will be produced, 
and sometimes none at all. In such case it is said that the 
sheep has the pelt-rot ; for the skin becomes too weak to 
produce wool, and the yolk is imperfectly formed, and pre- 
sents the appearance of a mere scurf. 

These circumstances show, that in order to produce wool 
of an uniform fibre, whether fine or coarse, the sheep 
should be kept as near as may be in even good condition 
throughout the year. 

In Spain, the Merino is provided with a plentiful supply 
of upland pasture at all seasons of the year ; but their long 
journies, and continual breeding, prevent any excessive 
accumulation of fat, and the best of wools are produced. 

Hence, in producing the finest qualities of wool, the Me- 
rino should be supplied with short pasture, upon dry hilly 
lands; but in producing long coarse combing wools, an 
abundance of highly nutritious feed will be most suitable. 

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 

A dry mild climate or temperature is, doubtless, most 
favorable to the production of the most perfect wool. 

The sheep is ever impatient of the extremes of heat or 
cold. In summer, it seeks the highest hills and coolest 
shades ; in winter, the vallies and places of refuge from 
cold and storms. 

The Spanish custom of driving sheep from the south of 
Spain, in spring, into the mountainous regions farther 
north, and then back again to the south in autumn, origina- 
ted in the necessity of providing food for them, in conse- 
quence of the severe annual drouth, which takes place on 
the southern plains of Spain in summer. By this means, 



183 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 

they are kept on cool uplands and mountains in summer, 
and in winter, in a temperature which rarely falls below 
48 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 

But this custom has shown conclusively that a moderate, 
not very warm temperature, will produce the most per- 
fect wool : and it is in no wise improbable that it has been 
the means of perfecting the Merino race of sheep, the most 
perfect wool-growing race which has yet been exhibited. 

In this matter we cannot, with propriety, compare the 
sheep with furred animals ; for their anatomical structure, 
food, and mode of life, are entirely different from that 
of the sheep. We can only reason from experience, from 
a view of the effects which climate has upon the sheep in 
different parts of the world. 

If the sheep of the temperate zones be carried to the tor- 
rid zone, the wool becomes, on such a sheep, thin and 
coarse, and finally degenerates into short hair: even if the 
change does not take place to its full extent on the individ- 
ual, it will infallibly do so in the course of a few genera- 
tions. — (Mr. Hunter.) 

On the other hand, if the same breed of sheep be taken 
to very high northern latitudes, the various breeds propa- 
gated in those countries show, that a mixture of hair will 
supervene with the wool, and the wool generally becomes 
coarse and harsh, instead of finer and softer like fur. 

And in spring, after the sheen is first shorn, when the 
skin is most exposed to cold, the largest bulk of fibre is 
immediately produced, and the fibre diminishes in size af- 
ter the fleece has grown, so as to produce that temperature 
of the skin which is most congenial to the sheep. 

These facts all go to show, that a climate of medium 
warmth, a temperate climate, will produce the most perfect 
fleece — that which contains the smallest proportion of hair. 
In such a climate, the sheep is most comfortable and heal- 
thy ; the action of the glands of its skin is most regular, 
and produces fibres the most uniform in size, and of the 
goriest texture. 

li\ then, in such a climate, the sheep can be kept as near 
as possible in the same condition as to health and flesh, and 
without exposure to the extremes of heat, or cold, or mois- 
ture, the greatest possible perfection of wool may be ob- 
tained. 



INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 189 

In the northern parts of Africa and southern parts of 
Spain, fine wools have been produced for ages, without any 
very special care, in a climate not much differing in warmth 
from that of the southern parts of the United Stales. In 
such a climate, by pasturing sheep in summer on highlands 
well provided with shades, and in winter on lower hills, the 
sheep may be accommodated with a temperature the most 
desirable for producing fine wools. 

In the northern parts of the temperate zones, doubtless, 
sheep will produce the heaviest fleeces; for in such lati- 
tudes, the largest fleeces are necessary for their protection. 
But in more southern latitudes, with the same care, they 
will produce the best wools. 

Hence, in high northern latitudes, vallies and low ran- 
ges of hills are best adapted for wool-growing; and shel- 
ters will be necessary in winter, and also even in summer, 
in cool, moist northern climates, like those of England and 
Saxony, in order to prevent the growth of hair, (or jar, s& 
it is called,) to which the skin of the fine-wooled sheep has 
a strong tendency in such climates. 

By means of shelters, proper selection and management, 
the wool of the Merino has been greatly improved in the 
climate of Saxony — a climate which is entirely unnatural 
10 it. 

As it is less difficult to provide against the extremes of 
heat in the southern parts of the temperate zones, than 
against those of cold and moisture in the northern parts of 
them, with good management, doubtless, fine-wooled sheep 
may be reared advantageously in any part of the temper- 
ate zones, on suitable localities. 

But the sheep has a constitution which is so extremely 
pliable that it will continually endeavor to adapt itself to 
the climate, food and soil where it is placed : therefore, if 
any breed be placed in situations which are not congenial 
to it, it will be only by special care that such breed can be 
preserved in its purity and full perfection for any great 
length of time. Hence, in Prussian Silesia, the tempera- 
ture of their sheep-stalls is regulated by the thermometer, 
in order to provide such a temperature as is best adapted to 
the growth of fine wool upon theJVIerino. 



190 



BREEDING. 



SECTION XXVIII. 

BREEDING. 




POINTS OF THE SHEEP. 

A— Forehead. B— Face. O— Nose. C— Neck. D— Shoulder. E 
—Bosom. F— Brisket. G— Fore-flank. H— Chine. I— Loin. K— 
Rump. L— Leg. M— Hip. N— Flank. 

When sheep have, for a long period, been bred in and 
in, or with others so nearly like them, that their progeny 
will, regularly and successively, possess points and quali- 
ties which are peculiar and very nearly similar, they are 
called a breed, or race. 

The breeds of sheep are improved principally with refer- 
ence to two great objects — wool and mutton. 

The breeder acts upon the general principle, that " like 
produces like." But in order to realize the benefits of this 
general law of nature, he should possess a very correct 
knowledge of the structure of the animals to be improved, 
together with an equally perfect acquaintance with their 
qualities and habits. He should also bear in mind that the 
above rule holds good more generally in breeding down- 
ward than in breeding upward. 

Bakewell, Ellman and others, have well denned the 
Joints of a good mutton sheep ; and with respect to form 



BREEDING. 191 

the New Leicester breed may be regarded as a perfect mo- 
del. With reference to wool, the Merino may be regarded 
as a perfect model. But as extraordinary fattening proper- 
ties cannot be united with the growth of fine wool on any 
one breed of sheep, it will be necessary to take a view of 
each kind by itself. 

MUTTON SHEEP. 

What is requisite in a well formed sheep, is, that the 
proportion of flesh and fat should be greatest on those parts 
which are most valuable, and that the bones should be com- 
paratively small, or only of a medium size. And this, not 
because that bone detracts any thing from the growth of 
flesh or fat — for it is mostly composed of ingredients differ- 
ent from those of flesh or fat — but because it has been 
found, by experience, that animals, having comparatively 
small well-formed bones, most readily take on flesh and Fat. 

Mr. Arthur Young, in a tour through some of the agri- 
cultural counties of England, visitea 1 Mr. Bakewell, and ex- 
plains the general principles which guided Mr. Bakewell in 
breeding a beast for the butcher — and they are as follows : 

First — " In all his exertions, his aim was, to obtain that 
breed which, with a given amount of food, would give the 
most profitable meat; that in which the proportion of the 
useful meat to the quantity of offal is the greatest." 

Second — " Points of the beast. The points are those 
where the valuable joints lie, viz : the rump, the hip, the 
back, the ribs, and after these, the flank. But the belly, 
legs, head and neck, should be light ; for if a beast has a 
disposition to fatten and be heavy in these, it will be found 
a deduction from the more valuable points. A beast's back 
should be square, flat, and straight, or if there is rising, it 
should be from a disposition to fatten and swell about the 
rump and hip-bones ; and the belly should be quite straight ; 
for if it swells, it shows weight in a bad point. He prefers 
to have the carcass well made, and showing a disposition to 
fatten in the valuable points. So far on seeing." 

Third — " Mr. Bakewell, to judge whether a beast has the 
right disposition to fatten, examines by feeling. His friend, 
Mr. Cully, who has had an infinite number of beasts pass 
through his hands, agrees entirely with Mr. Bakewell in 
this circumstance, and when with him in Norfolk and Suf- 



192 BREEDING. 

folk, was surprised lo find that lean bullocks and sheep 
were bought there by the eye only. So absolutely neces- 
sary is the hand in choosing either, that they both agreed, 
that if they must trust the eye in the light, or the hand in 
the dark, they would not hesitate a moment in preferring 
the latter. The form of the bone in sheep is quite hidden ; 
it is the hand alone that can tell whether the back is fiat 
and broad, and free from ridge in the back-bone, (as it 
should be in all breeds;) or can examine correctly, if the 
other points are as they should be. The disposition to fat- 
ten is discovered only by feeling. Speaking of sheep par- 
ticularly, the points to examine are the same as in the ox ; 
flatness, breadth of back, a spreading barrel carcass, and 
by no means curved and hanging. The essential is the 
carcass, and a disposition to fatten in the carcass, and per- 
haps to have the least tallow on the sides." 

" In explanation of these principles, it may be observed, 
that the head should be small, short, and thin, that is, nar- 
row in the forehead, both because it contains little flesh, 
and also, that it may not cause difficult parturition. 

Extraordinary powers for travelling are not necessary to 
the mutton sheep, and, therefore, the legs should be com- 
paratively short, but well formed, and standing wide apart 
both before and behind, so as to give room for a well-form- 
ed chest and abdomen. 

With legs comparatively short, the neck also should be. 
With such legs, a short neck will have length sufficient for 
the animal in grazing. The neck should be thin toward 
the head, in order to avoid coarseness of form ; but it 
should be thick toward the shoulder and chest, in order to 
obtain that breadth of chine, and capacity of chest, which 
are necessary to a good constitution and fattening proper- 
ties. The drooping neck — the thin ewe neck — is rarely or 
never connected with the quick accumulation of outward 
fat : it is usually an indication of v/eakness of condition, 
and although not the first, is one of the most unerring 
proofs of deterioration. If the head of the sheep be light, 
there will be no necessity that the withers should rise high, 
in order to give extra room for the insertion of muscles for 
the support of the head. Hence, a rising at the withers is 
a bad point : it indicates a large, heavy head, and is inva- 



BREEDING. 193 

riably accompanied wiih a chest w*hich is narrow, and in- 
compatible with a disposition to fatten readily. 
The bones of the back should be straight, from the rump "to 
the neck, and the vertebra thick and short, so as to bring the 
short ribs near to the hips, thus forming a short strong back, 
The back-bone of me horse contains 18 vertebra?, to 
which are attached 18 ribs on either side. For this animal, 
length of carcass is necessary, in order to make room for 
large lungs, and the insertion of powerful muscles, on the 
action of which its speed depends. The ox and the sheep 
are less active, and have each only 13 ribs on each side ; 
but the slightest inspection of a well-formed sheep will 
show how much more horizontally its ribs spring from the 
spine, than do those of the horse, or even of the ox, and, 
consequently, its chest is rounder, and proportionately 
more capacious. 

On the roundness and capacity of the chest, depend tho 
size and power of the heart and lungs ; and in proportion 
to their size, is the power of converting food into nourish- 
ment ; and the great cardinal point in animals designed for 
fattening, is, that the chest should not only be round, but 
also large in proportion to the size of the abdomen, and oth- 
er parts of the body. 

Within a given circumference, a circular form compri- 
ses a greater bulk than any other possible shape : it gives 
the most room for the laying onward and inwardly of mus- 
cles and fat, and for large lungs and abdominal regions, and 
for the proper expansion of the lungs, and peristaltic mo- 
tion of the bowels. 

The food is concocted in the abdomen, and nourishment 
is there eliminated from it ; but this nourishment (or car- 
bon,) cannot be used in the formation of muscle and fat, 
until it has passed through the lungs, and has been duly 
oxygenized by them. The lungs have a two-fold purpose 
to accomplish : one is, to produce warmth for the animal 
system ; and the other is, to communicate oxygen to the 
carbon, which is contained in the blood, so that it may ac- 
complish the metamorphosis of the tissues of muscle and 
fat ; may form and preserve them. If, then, the lungs are 
sufficiently large, so as to accomplish both these purposes 
at all tim^s, a due proportion of the carbon, which is recei- 
ved into the system in food, can be fully used in the forma- 



194 BREEDING. 

tion of flesh and fat, as well as in the production of heat ; 
and be the lungs ever so large, only so much carbon will be 
used in the production of heat in a quiet, healthy animal, 
as will be sufficient to preserve the even temperature of the 
body. 

But if the lungs be proportionably small, as they are in 
flat-sided animals, too large a proportion of the carbon will 
be wasted in the production of heat, especially in cold 
weather ; and it will be only in warm weather, that such 
animals can gain flesh and fat rapidly; and at no time so 
rapidly as round, large chested animals. 

Hence, as a general rule, round, large chested animals 
require the least food, and possess the greatest strength, 
according to their size. On this account, the horizontal 
projection of the ribs from the spine, and the consequent 
roundness and greater capacity of the chest, are reckoned 
among the most important points of the sheep. Doubtless 
Mr. Bake well clearly perceived the importance of these 
points in a well formed animal ; and hence we see that the 
New Leicester breed possesses a broader and larger chest, 
in proportion to its size, than any other breed, and, in this 
particular point, excels to this day, so as to render its form 
superior to that of all other breeds of mutton sheep. In 
accordance with these principles, the chest should be broad 
and deep; the back and loins broad, and the rump both long 
and broad, thereby securing large abdominal regions, and 
large hind quarters — the most valuable part of ihe sheep. 

The lower line of the belly should be nearly level or 
parallel with that of the back. A pot belly apparently 
gives the most room ; but it indicates weakness of the mus- 
cles of the abdomen, and an inability to afford its contents 
that support and pressure, which are necessary for the 
proper discharge of the digestive functions, and a tendency 
to increase of oifal at the expense of more valuable points. 

'•A general squareness of frame is indicative of large 
muscles, particularly of the quarters ; and a large devel- 
opement of flesh is pretty sure to be accompanied by a 
disposition to fatten ; but for profitable feeding it is es- 
sential that their qualities should be developed early — con- 
stituting early maturity." 

A soft mellow feeling of the skin and parts beneath it, 
is justly regarded as an extremely favorable point. It de- 



BREEDING. 195 

notes that healthy condition of the skin and the adipose 
membranes underneath it, which is necessary to all ani- 
mals possessing good fattening propensities. 

" But," says Mr. Sparrow, " there are various points 
that are sought after, not because of the particular value 
of those points, but because they are evidence of other 
valuable qualities. Thus, in the South Down breed, small 
bones are esteemed, as they are qualities which are found 
connected with fattening propensities. Black muzzles and 
legs are also valued, probably because they denote the 
good constitution and hardihood of the animal. We must, 
however, take care, lest in carrying these points to an ex- 
treme, we neglect other valuable qualities." 

Hence, as most breeds of animals which possess extra- 
ordinary fattening propensities, are apt to be somewhat 
deficient in their prolificacy and milking properties, each 
of these qualities should receive its due attention. 

In order to improve a breed of sheep, or preserve the 
good points and qualities of those which are already im- 
proved, it is necessary that they should be ever well fed 
and sheltered. Poverty, and undue exposure to cold, wet 
weather, have a direct tendency to produce deformity and 
disease. 

Upon the practical part of breeding for improvement, 
Mr. Spooner remarks as follows : 

"The improvement of a flock by means of breeding, 
requires very considerable and long continued care. 

" The qualities of both parents must be considered, both 
with a view of correcting bad, as well as perpetuating good 
qualities." 

" Tn breeding animals of a pure kind, the principal rule 
to be observed is, to breed from the very best of both sex- 
es ; to cull the faulty ones every year, saving only the fe- 
male lambs for the future flock, that are as free from de- 
fects as possible. Of course the flock must be kept to its 
proper size ; but, year by year, the finest animals should 
be selected, until, in the course of time, the flock will con- 
sist entirely of them. 

"And if a superior ram of the same breed can be procured 
from another rlock, by all means make use ot it, and 
give it the preference, if it is equal to our own. 

"The stronger the resemblance there is in the qualties 



196 BREEDING. « 

cf both parents, supposing those qualities are good, the 
more likely is it that the offspring will be perfect. 

" Then again with regard to size ; animals that grow 
most in stature, have the greatest developement of bone, 
are in fact the coarsest. In improving the flock, such ani- 
mals are avoided, not on account of their size, but their 
coarseness; and then in the course of time, thelarger sheep 
having been drafted, the flotck consists of the smaller and 
kinder animals. 

" The offspring of some animals is very unlike them- 
selves. It is, therefore, a good precaution to try the young 
males with a few females, the qualities of whose produce 
has been already ascertained. By this means we shall 
know the sort of stock they get, and the description of fe- 
males to which they are best adapted.'' (Seabright on the 
art of improving domestic animals.) 

As to horns, as a general rule, if any breed has naturally 
horns, as the Merino, it is best to breed from those which 
have well-shaped horns ; for if polled rams of such breeds 
are used, their progeny are very apt to have an unusual 
growth of hoofs, which need very frequent paring, and are 
apt to turn up so as to cramp the fleshy part of the foot, and 
produce foot rot. Moreover, the growth of horns on such 
sheep, does not appear to lessen the growth of wool, or 
propensity to fattening. 

It is supposed, with good reason, that Bakewell, in form- 
ing the New Leicester breed, made use only of the long 
wooled sheep of different flocks of the same race of sheep, 
which were in his neighborhood ; and it is certain that Ell- 
man used none but the pure South Down in perfecting his 
flock of that breed. These are strong precedents to show 
that the best mode of improving races of sheep for mut- 
ton, is to improve each kind by itself. 

In Spain, each breed of Merinos has been bred and im- 
proved by itself,breedinginand in forages, and the best of 
wool has been produced. The number of sheep in each 
cavana being very large, continual changes of affinity are 
made, and no detriment results from this course of breed- 
ing. And in Silesia and Saxony, the wools of the pure, 
unmixed Escurials have been improved, so as almost to de- 
fy competition. 

These numerous precedents afford an argument still 



BREEDING. 197 

more weighty, that the best wool can be produced by im* 
proving each breed by itself. 

FINE WOOLED SHEEP. 

For fine wooled sheep, the form of the Merino may be 
considered a model ; and though the various breeds of Me- 
rinos differ much in their appearance, the forms of every 
breed are well adapted to travelling. Being compelled to 
travel annually, in Spain, 800 or 900 miles, their forms 
have been moulded to this purpose, and the production of 
fine wool. They are kept at breeding or travelling nearly 
the whole year; are truly working animals ; and, doubtless 
the want of hardiness of the fine wooled sheep of Saxony, 
may be imputed, in some measure, to the great confine- 
ment to which they are subjected in that country. 

Hence, inbreeding the Merino, it is necessary that we 
adhere to the forms and other peculiarities which distin- 
guish the Merino from the mutton sheep. The best speci- 
mens of each breed of Merinos are well enough for all 
practical purposes ; and these best specimens of the Meri- 
no, are only an approximation towards the best forms of the 
perfect mutton sheep. As the Merinos in the United States 
do not travel ; are not working animals, as in Spain, we 
should be cautious not to mould them into the form of the 
perfect mutton sheep ; else they will be too strongly in- 
clined to take on flesh and fat, and the quality of their 
wool will become inferior, both coarser and harsher. And 
if we breed for size, we shall be in danger of the same re- 
sults, without increasing the profits ; as large animals con- 
sume a proportionably greater amount of food. Moreover, 
small animals have a larger surface (skin), according to 
their weight, than larger ones, and, therefore can more 
readily produce the same weight, and a superior quality 
of wool. 

On the other hand, as the weaker and more unhealthy 
animals of any breed of sheep are apt to produce a smaller 
fibre of wool, than those which are strong and healthy, we 
should carefully abstain from breeding with such weak or 
unhealthy animals, or the flock will become less hardy. 
The health and strength of the flock should never be sac- 
rificed, to any refinement in breeding. 

In breeding Merinos, it is particularly necessary, in all 



198 BREEDING. 

northern climates, to select well formed animals of both 
sexes for breeders ; the finer the wool, the more perfect 
should be the form. 

In each of the original breeds, time has adjusted its dif- 
ferent properties to each other, and these should not be 
disturbed, by unsuitable crosses, with other breeds. 

The great desideratum is, to breed from such aaimals.as 
will pepetuate the superior quality of the fleece ; and for 
that purpose, I shall insert the following remarks, which 
were communicated to the Commissioner of Patents, of the 
United States, by Charles L. Fleischman, Esq., and insert- 
ed by said commissioner in his annual report for the year 
1847, relative to Spanish and German rules for breeding 
fine wopled sheep. 

" According to Petri, who travelled in Spain, with the 
view of collecting information upon wool culture, the Span- 
ish consider Merino sheep, with folds, as a sign of an im- 
proved and thorough breed. More or less folds upon an 
animal, give proof of the greater or less qaantity of wool ; 
but these folds must be covered with as fine and good a wool 
as it is on the adjacent parts of the body. The Spaniards 
kill all those lambs which are born with few folds, and fine 
short hair, or almost naked, because experience has taught 
them, that the offspring of such animals bear a fine wool, 
but produce, by degrees, animals with light, flabby fleeces. 
which gradually lose the folds, and become thinner and 
thinner in the fleece, and are consequently less advanta- 
geous to the wool-grower than those sheep which are pro- 
duced from lambs with plenty of folds, and a cover of 
fine, soft hair. 

" When we examine such a sheep, after the fleece has 
its full growth, the wool must be, on all parts of the body, 
even in fineness; the folds must be covered with as fine 
wool as on the shoulders and sides. 

" Twenty years ago [in Germany] bucks with a smooth 
tight skin, which had extremely fine wool, were considered 
the best ; but their fleeces were light in weight, and had a 
tendency to run into twist. The German wool-grower had 
to come back to the original form of rams, with a loose 
skin, many folds and heavy fleeces, and since then they 
have succeeded in uniting, with a great quanity of wool, a 
high degree of fineness. This kind of heavy folded ani- 



BSEEDING. / 199 



mals are now considered the best for breeding and wool- 



bearing. 



" The lambs of the Electoral flocks of Saxony have been 
of that smooth kind just mentioned, and produced the Elec- 
toral wool, which was found to be similar to that grown in 
Spain from the Merinos-estantes, which is but a small quan- 
tity when compared with the clips from the transhumantes, 
the flocks of which generally bear heavy fleeces. 

" The common country sheep, on the continent of Eu- 
rope, have no folds, and they get them only when they are 
crossed with full-blooded Merino bucks, whereby the fleece 
becomes thicker and closer. 

" Only to the Merino belongs the close and thick set 
fleece which, in respect to their size, produces the greatest 
quantity of wool. The folds are not a necessary condition 
of fineness, but of quantity, and are peculiar to the Spanish 
full-blood Merino. Almost all superior Merinos have folds 
upon the ribs, where the finest wool grows, and the wool 
of these animals is of such an uniform character that the 
folds are only discernible after the animal is shorn. 

" Petri observed that the lambs which bring into the 
world fine soft hair, and a great number of folds, and whose 
tails are, in appearance, shortened by the large folds around 
them, bear the indication of great softness and quantity of 
wool. 

" Experience has shown that only thorough blood should 
be employed in the improvement of stock. Sometimes, in 
an inferior flock, an animal is found which has all the 
qualities of a super Electoral; but such an animal will 
produce lambs inferior to himself, and full of the faults of 
his original parents. 

* It is likewise to be noticed that the powerful, thick, and 
rich wooled bucks more strongly transmit their peculiari- 
ties, than the thin and fine-wooled ; so that it is easier to 
increase the weight of wool of a highly refined flock, than 
to bring it to a yet greater degree of fineness. 

"We must also aim at the production of a wool of an 
uniform character, and the growth of a staple free from 
faults ; since, in most of our sheep-folds, we now find, at 
the same time, long and short, coarse and fine wool, thick 
and thin, slight curled and uncurled fleeces. In order to 
attain gradually to an entirely uniform kind of wool in a 



200 BREEDING. 

sheep-fold, according to the opinion of judicious sheep- 
breeders, we should make use of bucks of an uniform char- 
acter, that is, of equally long or equally short wool, &c, 
according as any one, guiding himself by local circumstan- 
ces, wishes to produce a longer or shorter wool ; and not, 
as happens at the present day, choose bucks of different 
kinds of fleeces for coupling in one and the same flock of 
ewes. The bucks must be chosen from the sheep-folds of 
exactly the same kind of growth and formation of staple, 
and the wool must, at the same time, be of equal fineness 
in the hair, on all parts of the body ; that is, exactly even ; 
for only with such can we reckon on continuing the blood 
and securing a good stock in future. The transition from 
one variety to another, when it becomes necessary, must 
be made only gradually ; consequently, every one should 
avoid rapid transition at every coupling. 

The choice of the buck must be made in the months of 
March and April, or at least before the shearing, by one 
who is a judge in such matters, with circumspection and 
prudence ; but not as is frequently done shortly before the 
crossing — by the shepherd, who then, even if he under- 
stands it, can make no proper choice. 

" Whoever makes the production of a highly fine wool 
the object of his breeding, will finally obtain a flock, each 
of which bears scarcely more than one pound of wool ; but, 
on the contrary, whoever merely directs himself to secure 
a rich weight of wool, will, by richer nutriment, obtain 
sheep which will produce four pounds and over of wool. 
In an economical respect, it is, in most cases, advisable to 
avoid both extremes. 

" But, above all, in order to obtain a sufficiently profita- 
ble sheep-fold, whether it be by the production of a highly 
fine wool, or by the quantity of wool, one must be careful, 
and one must indeed know what he would have, and not 
waver and change the wool in his experiments; he must 
know what he would have, and that by proper means/' 

POINTS OF THE MERINO RAM. 

The different breeds of Merinos differ widely in the pro- 
portions of their various parts ; but on each breed the vari- 
ons parts should be rightly proportioned to each other. 
Therefore, in breeding, we should not endeavor to alter the 



BREEDING. 201 

general form of any breed ; but only to select and breed 
from the best specimens of the kind which we cultivate. — 
With this view, the following rules will be applicable to 
every breed : 

The head should be of a medium size and length for the 
breed, but wide between the eyes ; the eye full and bright ; 
the nose convex, and covered with fine soft hair ; the horns 
large, but not too near the eye or face ; the neck short, and 
broad where it sits on the body, well rounded, and gradu- 
ally tapering, and nearly straight from the withers to the 
head ; the frame compact, but not over large ; the bosom 
broad and full ; broad shoulders ; the back broad, level, 
straight, and short for the breed ; and the top of the shoul- 
der-blades on a level with the back-bone ; the hind quar- 
ters full, and round at the rump, and the flesh deep and 
full between the thighs (or in the twist) ; the tail set well 
up; the belly round and full, but not over large; the legs 
strong, upright, and of a medium size and length for the 
breed, and standing rather wide apart both behind and be- 
fore, so as to give room for a chest which is well rounded, 
but proportionally smaller than that of the perfect mutton 
sheep ; sound hoofs ; the testicles large, and well covered 
with wool ; a large folded, mellow skin, which has a fine 
carnation hue; a large dewlap is indicative of a heavy 
fleece, and for that purpose the forehead, belly, and legs 
should be well covered with wool ; the wool soft and com- 
pact, and as nearly as possible of even fineness, length, and 
thickness over the whole body ; no hair (or jar) intermin- 
gled with the fleece ; the wool well covered with yolk ; if 
the ram has only a moderate quantity of yolk, the ewes — 
his progeny — may be somewhat deficient in this respect, 
and the ewe never has too much yolk for the benefit of the 
fleece. 

" The following measures will furnish data by which to 
judge of the various breeds of Merinos. They are selected 
from the valuable work of Petri, a highly celebrated writer 
on sheep, and an admkted authority, in these matters, in 
•Germany. 



202 



BREEDING. 



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BREEDING IN AND IN. 203 

The Infantado breed of Merinos, highly improved by se- 
lection and good management, is cultivated at Alesuth, in 
Hungary. Their fleeces are there washed in the nicest 
possible manner upon the. sheep's back, and the average 
weight of their fleeces, as ascertained by personal examina- 
tion by C. L. Fleischman, and by reference to the bills and 
books, is as follows : 

Rams' fleeces, - ... 3 lbs. 
Wethers' " . - - - 3£ « 

Ewes' " .... 2^ « 

Lambs' " - - - - 14 oz. 



SECTION XXIX. 

BREEDING IN AND IN. 

By breeding in and in is meant, the copulation of indi- 
viduals of the same family or race, between which there 
exist near relationship of blood. 

In the human family, breeding with too near affinity pro- 
duces deformity of body and imbecility of mind, and the 
supreme power has given to man discretion to avoid this 
evil ; but as to other animals, no such discretion was given 
— breeding with near affinity among them rarely produces 
deformity : it only produces weakness and inferiority of 
size. 

It is well known that male animals, of various kinds, are 
frequently copulated with their own dams or progeny, with- 
out producing badly formed animals. 

Animals in a state of nature, are sure to breed occasion- 
ally from the nearest affinity ; and the evils which would 
arise from this course, if steadily pursued, are prevented, 
in a great measure, by the circumstance, that in a state of 
nature, the strongest animals are continually the principal 
sires of the flock, and are always making some change of 
affinity in the crosses which they make, so as to produce a 
strong progeny in most cases. 



204 BREEDING IN AND IN. 

Now, though we cannot understand why the copulation 
of animals, having a very near affinity, will have the above 
effects, either in the human family or among other ani- 
mals, it is sufficient for our purpose to know that such 
breeding produces a defective organization, and that the 
continual selection of the best formed and healthiest ani- 
mals cannot entirely prevent its evil effects, especially 
where such a course is pursued for several generations. 

In support of this theory are the observations of Mr. 
Dick, of Edinburg, in Scotland. " He has been informed 
by eminent farmers, that cattle bred in and in, are sub- 
ject to clyers in the throat, after they have attained their 
first year." By clyers, are meant enlarged lymphatic 
glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofu- 
lous habit — a breaking up of the constitution." 

In a number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture of 
Edinburg, Mr. Dickson remarks that, " the evil of breeding 
in and in, is manifested, in the first instance, by a tender- 
ness of constitution ; the animals not being able to with- 
stand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drouth. If 
the evil is prolonged through several generations, the forms 
of the animals become affected, the bone becomes very 
small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes tight 
and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the eye 
indicates extreme, sensibility, the hair on the body becomes 
thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper; the whole 
carcass becomes much diminished in size." 

The objects sought to be accomplished by breeding in 
and in, are, the preservation of good points or qualities, 
which are supposed to exist in one or both parents, or in 
the breed. 

In order to succeed in breeding from animals having ve- 
ry near affinities, it will be necessary that the climate and 
soil be very favorable, or that there should be a masterly 
selection and management of the individuals selected for 
breeding, or that all these circumstances attend the under- 
taking; otherwise, some weakness or imperfection of some 
part of the flock, will surely succeed and show itself. Mr. 
Bakewell bred in and in to a certain extent, but it should 
be remembered that this was done by the hand of a master. 

" Mr. Cully, the eminent breeder, expressed the opinion 
that less risk was incurred by breeding in and in, than was 



BREEDING IN AND IN. 206 

generally supposed ; yet appears to have preferred the 
practice of breeding from different families of the same 
race, as he hired his rams from Mr. Bakewell for many 
years, and, at the same time, other breeders were paying 
him a liberal price for his own valuable animals." And 
Blacklock observes, " this is of all methods deservedly the 
best, as the males, which are interchanged, have always 
had shades of difference impressed upon them by various 
soils and treatment, so that the defects of each family have 
a good chance to be counteracted by the perfections of the 
other." 

In this manner, by proper selection of males, good points 
and qualities may be heightened, and bad points and 
qualities may be gradually exhausted. This course is 
more particularly necessary where the flock is small, so 
that not many crosses can be made, without breeding from 
those which are too nearly related. 

Where this mode is not practicable, breeding from rarrts 
of the same flock in such a manner as to preserve a distant 
affinity between sire and dam, is the next best mode of pro- 
ceeding. 

This may be done in a convenient manner by keeping 
several sets of rams, and marking each set of rams and its 
progeny, both ram-lambs and ewe-rams, with a particular 
ear-mark or nick, and crossing the ewes, descended from 
any one set of rams, with rams of, or descended from, a 
different set. By making use of several sets of rams, a 
continual change of affinity will be made, by which means 
a flock may be preserved in full perfection, especially 
where the climate and soil are favorable to the breed im- 
proved, and if the strongest and best bodied rams are se- 
lected for sires. 

In Germany, breeding registers are kept by many per- 
sons, and each sheep receives distinct marks upon the ear, 
by which its affinity to the rest of the flock is readily 
known, and its ear-mark and the quality of its wool is 
duly registered ; so that good blood and a distant affinity 
may be preserved. 

The following cut exemplifies one mode of numbering 
on the ears, which is much used in Germany. 



206 



25 



BREEDING IN AND IN. 
5 500 




100 



50 



EXPLANATION 

On the point of the left ear 

below four times one 

above three times five 
On the point of the right ear 

above 4 times 500 

below 2 times 100 



25 

4 

15 

50 

2000 

2C0 

2294 



The following form of a breeding register, as kept by 
Mr. H. D. Grove, together with his notes of explanation, 
as contained in the fourth of Colman's Massachusetts Ag- 
ricultural Reports, will exemplify the German mode of re- 
gistering sheep. 

Breeding Pie gister, from July 1, 1838 to July 1, 1839. 



: Year in 
No ! which 
: born 



Tupped : Date of : No.of lambs 

by ram : lambing- : 

No. : : rams ; ewes 



Classification : 
of the lambs, : General 
&c. : remarks 



25 r 1833 



1834 



27-4 



26-4 



6-4 



7-4 



lst.Small and : Thin 

close curbed. ; lambs; 1 
: very fee- 
; ble&died 

2d. Middle, 

small curls. 



Lambs 
had a few 
fine hairs 
underthe 
belly, &c 

" In the first column is the number of the ewe ; in the 
second, the ram's age, and instead of writing it out, I mere- 
ly write 3, 4, 5 and 6, which means 1833, 34, 35, 36, &c. 
In the third column is the number and age of the ram, thus 
27-4 : 27 means the number, and 4, his age ; namely, 
1834, &c. In- the fourth column is the day and month 
when the lamb is yeaned — thus 6-4 means the 6th day and 
4th month. In the sixth columns are the number of ram 
and ewe lambs. In the seventh is the classification of the 
lambs, when a [ew days old. and the last column is for gen- 
eral remarks." 



CROSSING. 207 

Mr. Grove says, " I am very particular in classifying my 
lambs with as much accuracy as possible, to enable me to 
decide upon the good or bad qualities of a progenitor or 
breeder. If his progeny is not such as I desire, he is re- 
jected at once. I select my stock of rams with the great- 
est care, for I consider this the most important point in 
breeding ; and here I find my records of great value. If I 
have two rams before me of equal quality, and hardly 
knowing which to give the preference, my records decide 
the question; for the one which has the best ancestry is 
preferred to the other." 



SECTION XXX. 

CROSSING. 

• 
Crosses are made with reference to different purposes. 
And Jlrst, with reference to forming new breeds of sheep. 
This is a difficult task, and requires the application of cor- 
rect principles, and much practical judgment. In order to 
success, it is necessary that the soil, climate, locality, quan- 
tity and quality of food, and management, should be suitable 
for the breed intended to be formed. Also, there should be 
an affinity of constitution, between the breeds which are to 
be united ; each breed should possess properties which are 
compatible with those of the other; and the stronger the 
resemblance between them, the less the difficulty in blend- 
ing them. 

Thus, two breeds of Merinos which resemble each oth- 
er in form, may, in many cases, be thoroughly amalga- 
mated, after a few generations. But if they differ widely 
in form, very many crosses may be necessary to consoli- 
date them, so as to retain the good properties, and avoid 
the defects, which each possesses. Hence, it has been 
found almost impossible to form a good cross between the 
Negretti and some other breeds. 

So also, most of the long wooled breeds of England have 
been improved by crossing with the New Leicester ram ; 



208 CROSSING. 

but it has generally failed in making any permanent im- 
provement in short wooled sheep, among which the South 
Down has been far more successful. Hence, breeds of 
sheep, between which there is a wide contrast in their qual- 
ities, as the Merino and New Leicester, should never be 
copulated for the purpose of perpetuating their progeny ; 
unless for the purpose of substituting one breed for anoth- 
er, by continued crossing, or, unless the immediate proge- 
ny is intended for the butcher. For the latter purpose, 
such crosses are very useful, generally producing, in the 
progeny, great thriftiness and strength of constitution. — 
Great length of staple cannot be united with extreme fine- 
ness and softness, on any one breed ; it supposes a rapid 
and strong growth of the fibre, which is inconsistent with 
the production of fineness and softness. Lord Western 
has experimented in England, upon a large scale, in cross- 
ing the Merino with the New Leicester, and other long 
wooled breeds, for many years, but without establishing a 
breed, which can be said to have fixed characteristics. — 
Even if this object is attainable, a very great length of 
time and much judgment would be necessary in order to 
accomplish it. 

In breeding from mongrels, produced by such crosses, 
the rule, that " like produces like," cannot be depended 
upon; even if these mongrels have been bred together for 
many generations, the form and size of the progeny, and 
qualities of their wool, will frequently vary; often resem- 
bling some remote ancestry, or possessing some defect 
which was not foreseen. 

In crossing, to form a new breed, the breeder should have 
have a sufficient number of animals, from which to select, so 
so that there may be an opportunity of obtaining the points 
he wishes for, without the concomtiant defects. Range for 
selection is very important, and much disappointment has fre- 
quently been experienced, from inattention to this particular. 

The successful results should be carefully selected for 
breeders ; rejecting the others, and using for this purpose 
only healthy animals, which have not too near an affinity 
by blood. 

The selections must be continued for many generations, 
before the distinct qualities of the new breed can be fully 
established. 



/ - 



CROSSING. 209 

Crossing should be adopted cautiously, and at first with 
only a portion of the flock : for we should not run the risk 
of spoiling the whole ; and the success of the first experi- 
ment will regulate the second. 

If we cross to correct abad, or produce a favorable qual- 
ity, then we should immediately return to our own breed, 
as soon as such effect has been obtained ; always bearing 
in mind that we are making an experiment, which may, or 
may not succeed. 

Under such circumstances, the safer and surer course, 
for those who wish for a breed which possesses uniformity 
of character, and which can be depended upon, is, to select 
and adhere to some one breed, whose qualities have been 
long inbred, and are well known. It would seem that there 
is already in existence, a sufficient variety of breeds, to 
satisfy the fancy or judgment of the most fastidious. 

Second — Crossing, in order to substitute one breed for 
another. 

This may be done conveniently by using the male ani- 
mals only of the new breed as sires, until the old breed is 
lost ; especially if the new breed is smaller than the old 
one. In this case, the ewe being proportionally larger than 
the ram, she will yean without difficulty, and will supply 
an abundance of milk for the growing lamb. But if the 
new breed be larger than the old one, it will be necessary, 
in the first cross, to use the smallest sized rams of the new 
breed as sires ; otherwise the ewes will be very liable to be 
injured in lambing, in consequence of the large size of the 
lambs, and an insufficient supply of milk may be afforded, 
so that the progeny will be apt to exhibit the appearance of 
starvelings. 

The crossing should be continued until every point and 
peculiarity of the new breed is fully developed in the prog- 
eny; and this object will be soonest attained by using only 
thorough bred animals of the new breed •■£ sires. 

Third — As to alteration in the fineness of the wool. 

It is a general rule, that the alteration will be nearly in 
exact arithmetical proportion to the relative fineness of the 
fibres of the wool of the sire and the dam. If the fibre of 
the wool of the sire be represented by 800, and that of the 
dam by 600, that of the progeny will be 700. Hence, in 
crossing the pure Merino with coarse-wooled sheep, four 



210 CROSSING. 

crosses are generally considered sufficient in order to ob- 
tain wool as fine as the pure Merino. But if the sheep 
with which the Merino is to be crossed, is very coarse, five 
or more crosses may be necessary before that object is ob- 
tained; and ten, or even thirty crosses, wifh pure blooded 
Merinos of the most improved breeds, may be necessary 
before every perfection of such breeds can be fully ob- 
tained. 

Fourth, — With reference to the color of the wool. 

In the middle and northern parts of the temperate zones, 
sheep seem disposed to put on white fleeces ; and black, or 
other colored fleeces, appear to be only accidental varie- 
ties. For, if black sheep are copulated with white ones, 
either a black ram with white ewes, or a white ram with 
black ewes, the progeny will be almost invariably white. 

In order to procure progeny having black fleeces with 
certainty, it is necessary that both sire and dam be black. 
In such case, the wool of the progeny will generally be 
black, or nearly so. 

It seems that anciently in Italy, special care was used 
not to breed from rams having a spotted tongue or lips, lest 
a dark colored or spotted progeny should arise from such 
connection ; and the same care is used in Spain to this day ; 
but there seems to be no good foundation for this notion. 

Fifth — With reference to obtaining the greatest number 
of lambs. 

If twin lambs are desired, a ram should be used which 
has been dropped a twin lamb himself. Mr. John Ellman, 
in speaking of the South Downs, says : " Experience has 
satisfied me, that a ram, which may be a twin, will get 
double the number of twin lambs that other rams will." — 
And Mr. Tusser says — 

" Ewes yearly by twinning rich masters do make, 
The lambs of such twinners for breeders go take." 

Mr. Youatt also remarks that " No fact can be more 
clearly estab! ished than a hereditary tendency to fecundity." 

Sixth — With reference to the form of the progeny. 

M. Charles Giron de Busareinges, an agriculturist in the 
south of France, has ascertained, by numerous experiments 
upon animals of different kinds, that, as a general rule, the 
law of nature is, " that in animals of mature age and per- 
fect deve) >pement. the influences of the sexes on the exter- 



CROSSING. 211 

nal form crosses in generation — the male progeny being 
more like the dam, and the female progeny more like the 
gfire." This he has decided by experiment and observa- 
tion. And if we reflect upon the course pursued by ani- 
mals in propagation, it will be seen that this law of nature 
was intended by the supreme power for the perpetuation of 
races. Among animals left to themselves, the sireship of 
the flock is determined by fighting, and the strongest ani- 
mals become the principal sires of the flock. They com- 
municate to their female progeny their own forms, and their 
female progeny transmit the same to the next generation of 
males. And thus strength of form will be communicated 
from generation, to generation, equally both to males and 
females. And the sentiment that, "none but the brave de- 
serve the fair," is entirely in unison with this law of nature. 
If, therefore, rams are wanted which shall have a particu- 
lar form, ewes should be chosen which are as near as pos- 
sible of the form desired ; and then, if the sire with which 
the ewes are to be coupled, is a vigorous animal, and does 
not differ very widely in shape from the ewes, we may ex- 
pect ram-lambs of the form desired : but the ewe-lambs 
will inherit the shape and qualities of the sire, except as to 
wool, as aforesaid. 

Seventh — With reference to sex of progeny. 

M. Giron has also by numerous experiments ascertained 
what appears to be the law of nature in this respect. And 
it is, " that in regard to sex itself, the influence i£ direct ; 
the sex of the progeny will correspond with that of the pa- 
rent which had the strongest constitution, and was in the 
soundest health at the time of union." 

As to this proposition, his first remark was, " that in his 
flocks, those females which were at the most vigorous age 
generally produced females, whether united to strong or 
weak subjects; while those females that had neither not 
attained, or had passed the prime of life, produced males 
when united to prime subjects, or females when united to 
very old rm 

'* To ascertain whether this discovery corresponded with 
general observation among practical farmers, M. Giron 
made inquiries of the neighboring agriculturists, who in- 
formed him that they had constantly remarked, tHat when 
the male was young, and the female vigorous, the product 



212 CROSSING. 

of their union was female, while the contrary had as uni- 
formly happened when the conditions were reversed, 

V In order to test this matter still farther, M. G. announ- 
ced, in 1825, to the Agricultural meeting of Severac, that a 
part of his flock, already marked, would give him, at the 
next lamb time, more females than males. The Society 
nominated two commissioners to ascertain the facts ; and it 
turned out that the proportion of males to females was 1000 
males to 1472 females." 

At a subsequent meeting, July 3d, 1826, M. Giron offer- 
ed to effect the production of a majority of males or fe- 
males in a given flock, at the choice of the Society. Two 
flocks were immediately furnished by the members of the 
Society. 

" The first flock was divided into two equal parts. The 
first part, being supplied with very young rams, gave a pro- 
duct of 30 males to 76 females. The second part, being 
supplied with strong and vigorous rams four or five years 
old, gave a product of 55 males to 31 females. 

" The second flock was also divided into two sections, 
but with more regard to the other conditions referred to. — 
The first section was composed of strong sheep four or five 
years old, and sent into a rich pasturage, and visited by 
yearling rams : it produced 15 males and 25 females. The 
second section, composed of feeble sheep under four or five 
years old, was placed in dry pasturage, and received two 
strong rams over three years old. The result was 26 males 
and 14 females. In both experiments it was observed, that 
the lambs produced by the young rams were equal in ap- 
pearance to those produced by the most vigorous. 

" The experiments were continued in other classes of 
animals, birds, and insects, with the same result. In the 
poultry yard, (e. y.) where the preponderance of maturity 
and vigor was on the part of the hen, there resulted 725 
males and 1000 females ; and where the male parent was 
the most vigorous and of the ripest age, there resulted 1415 
males and 1000 females. — (New England Farmer.) 

The principles of Breeding cannot be used so as to pro- 
duce exact results, like mathematical rules ; but the experi- 
ments of M. Giron are very satisfactory, and long observa- 
tion has convinced me that the principles set forth by him 
are correct, as applied to sheep. 



SELECTION OF BREEDS. 213 

SECTION XXXI. 

SELECTION OF BREEDS. 

The two great purposes for which sheep are reared are 
their wool and mutton. Consequently, in the selection of 
breeds, it becomes necessary, not only to select a breed 
which is adapted to the soil and climate, but also with ref- 
erence to the value of its wool and mutton where it is rear- 
ed. If the locality be far from a market for mutton, the 
production of very fine wool or a great quantity of long 
combing wool may be most profitable, and mutton only a 
secondary consideration. Under such circumstances the 
breed, whether fine or coarse wooled, should be particu- 
larly adapted to the soil and food. If the locality is near 
a good market for mutton, that may be the principal object, 
and wool the lesser. In such cases, the deficiency of the 
productions of the farm may be in some measure supplied 
by purchase, i/ necessary. 

When two breeds of sheep are equally well formed, the 
expenditure of food will be nearly in exact proportion to 
their relative size. But as animals, which are well form- 
ed, consume less food in proportion to their size, than those 
which are ill formed, and are also generally the hardiest 
and healthiest, every breeder should carefully select a 
well formed breed, whether it be coarse or fine wooled. 

As a general rule, animals of a moderate size, of any 
breed, with thrifiiness of habit and hardiness of constitu- 
tion, are best adapted to most parts of the United States, 
and produce the best wools. Animals of the largest size, 
of any breed, may be more pleasing to the eye, but, gener- 
ally speaking, are less hardy and less capable of enduring 
a scarcity of food from drought, or other causes, or hard 
usage of any kind ; and consequently to most persons are 
less profitable than those of a medium size. 

For the production of fine wool, the various breeds of 
Merino possess all the qualities which are necessary on 
dry soils of a medium or inferior quality. For the pro- 
duction of mutton or mutton and long wool on very rich 
grass lands, the various improved breeds of English sheep, 
and their crosses with the Merino, are best adapted ; and 



214 SELE CTION OFBREEDS. 

with reference to these English breeds, the remarks of Mr. 
Spoonerwill fully illustrate the subject, as follows : 

" The management and selection of any breed of sheep, 
must after all become a matter of pounds, shillings and 
pence. The question the farmer has to consider is, what 
description of sheep will, in the long run, return the most 
profit ; and this question must be viewed in strict relation to 
the management he will be able to adopt, on the particular 
farm on which he may be located. It is not, therefore, a 
simple, but a compound question. It is not merely which 
breed will make most flesh and fat, but which will make it 
in the shortest time, and on the least food ; which can bear 
the weather, or hard keep, or travelling, or a particular mode 
of management, with the greatest impunity. All these 
considerations must enter into the farmer's mind, before he 
can come to a sound conclusion. From the want of mak- 
ing these considerations, many fatal mistakes have been made 
and a flock has been selected, altogether unsuitable to the 
soil, and incapable of bearing the severity of the weather." 

" The two breeds which appear as rivals, in their claims 
on public attention, are the New Leicester and the South 
Down. It cannot be doubted, that as far as propensity to 
fatten and early maturity are considered, the Leicester will 
not only rival, but eclipse all others ; for these qualities the 
form may be justly considered a model, and all other 
breeds will possess these qualities in a greater or less de- 
gree, in proportion as they possess the similitude of the 
form and points of the Leicester sheep. The South Down 
itself will not be an exception to this rule. For if the im- 
proved and the neglected specimens be compared together, 
it will be found that the excellencies of the former consist 
in those points which approximate most to the Leicester. 
The wool, too, is also a, consideration ; for the fleece, 
from its greater length and weight, will bring in nearly 
double that of the South Down. When, therefore, the pas- 
ture is very fertile, the Leicester may be justly regarded as 
the most;'profitable of the pure breeds. Its drawbacks are, 
the incapability of the aivimal for bearing exposure, or trav- 
elling, or living hard ; in fact its weaker constitution, and 
greater liability to inflammatory disorders. 

" Then again, the mutton is not so good as the South 
Down, which, however, is, partly, not wholly owing to 



SELECTION OF BREEDS. 215 

the early period (twenty months) at which they are fit for 
the butcher, and partly to the large proportion of tallow in 
proportion to the lean. Thus it is not a favorite in the 
London markets. Accordingly, of late years, the first cross 
between the Leicester and the Down has been produced, 
instead of the Leicester. And it is contended that this 
first cross is the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, 
making greater and more rapid progress than the Down 
and better meat than the Leicester. But it is better 
to stop at the first cross, devoting the produce entirely 
to the butcher, and preserve the slock sheep pure." 

" The South Doivn, or rather the improved South Down 
— for there is a great difference between the two — posses- 
ses most valuable qualities ; with a propensity to fatten in- 
ferior only to the Leicester, but with 'later maturity, (often 
thirty-two months, though considerably shorter than it once 
was,) this breed are excellent travellers, well adapted for 
folding, hardy, compared with the Leicester, and capable 
of living on short pasture, and perhaps the best of all 
breeds for the Down farms of the south of England. The 
mutton, too, is more esteemed than any other, with the ex- 
ception of the small mountain sheep. 

" Perhaps there is no ancient pure blood of sheep that 
has undergone so much improvement as the South Down ; 
and it affords the owners of other breeds a proper example, 
showing what can be done by care and attention, and the 
application of correct principles. 

" The Cheviot sheep possess many valuable qualities ; 
decidedly inferior to the South Downs in their fattening 
powers and their early maturity, they are superior in these 
points to all other mountain sheep, and, in hardihood, even 
to the South Down, and are thus adapted to their native 
hills, and all other pastures of a similar character. 

" These three breeds, the Leicester, the South Down, 
and the Cheviot, may be considered as the principal pure 
breeds which this country (England) possesses; they are 
essential to the variety of pastures, and without them this 
country could not be properly stocked. Other breeds, 
whi^h it may be advantageous to adopt, either possess pe- 
culiar qualities, which render them valuable, or have been 
crossed extensively with more improved breeds. 

" The Dorset and the Somerset^ for instance, are valua- 



216 SELECTION OF BREEDS. 

ble on account of the ewes taking the ram so much earlier 
than other breeds, so that the lambs come into the market 
when scarce, and thus command a higher price. These 
qualities have caused this breed to be diffused to a great 
extent within the circuit of a hundred miles of London. — 
The qualities of this breed, in other respects, are inferior 
to the Down : the mutton is not quite so much esteemed, 
the sheep are not so hardy, and do not possess equal fatten- 
ing powers. 

" The South Down and the Cheviot rams have been used 
extensively for the purpose of improving the mountain 
breeds, both of Wales and Ireland, and when care is taken 
10 retain a preponderance of the indigenous breed, the re- 
sult has generally been successful. 

" The Leicester have been extensively employed in im- 
proving the breed of other sheep, and so successful has 
this practice been in many instances, that the result of the 
cross has produced a breed more profitable than the Leices- 
ter itself — retaining the fattening qualities of the sire, with 
the greater hardihood of the soil possessed by the native 
breed. The Lincoln, the Romney Marsh, the Hampton, 
and the Cotswold sheep have been thus improved ; the 
large frame and length of wool of the Cotswold have been 
retained, together with much of the fattening qualities of 
the Leicester sire." 

The above is the opinion of Mr. Spooneras to the cross 
of the Leicester and the Cotswold breeds. But, " There 
are many of the Cotswold breeders, who say they have 
not a drop of the Leicester blood, but have improved their 
symmetry by a close attention to the smaller male of the 
original, with a fat back and curly skin in view, still keep- 
ing their long faces and ears, rumps, and legs of mutton ; 
thus producing earlier maturity, and abetter mixture of fat 
and lean, than the Leicester cross. — (A. Agriculturalist.) 

From the observations of Mr. Spooner, it would seem 
that the Cheviot breed are best adapted to the high, moun- 
tainous regions of the Northern States ; the New Leices- 
ter, the Cotswold and the Lincoln breeds, to rich, low lands 
and to the flat prairie, and other level grass lands of the 
Western States, and the South Down to the shorter pas- 
tures of hilly lands. To such pastures, also, the various 
breeds of Merinos, and their crosses with coarse wooled 



SHELTERS. 21; 

sheep, are best adapted, and the mutton of the Merino, 
when faued on such lands, is excellent. 

The prudent farmer, therefore, will do well to make him- 
self acquainted with the inherent qualities and peculiari- 
ties of the different races of sheep, within his reach, and 
to make choice of, and adhere to, some one breed, which 
under all circumstances, promises to pay best, for his out- 
lay of capital and attention. 



SECTION XXXII. 

SHELTERS. 

In all past ages, the common sense of mankind has 
decided thai shelters were necessary and useful for sheep 
in winter. Among other picturesque objects, which Ho- 
mer delineated on the shield of Achilles, nearly three 
thousand years ago, was a pasture with many white 
sheep, in a beautiful valley, and shepherds' tents, and 
hurdling stakes, and sheep cotes, well roofed over. 

Virgil, in his Georgies, (i. e. poetical works upon hus- 
bandry,) specially directs that sheep should be foddered 
in stalls through the winter: and he informs us that the 
Germans, and other northern nations, kept their herds in 
stalls in winter. 

Less care has formerly been used in Britain, with re- 
spect to shelters, than in other northern parts of Europe, 
in consequence of the greater mildness of the climate ; 
but of late years more attention has been paid to the 
benefits of protection. 

Sir G. S. McKenzie, of Scotland, thus remarks upon 
this subject: "Shelter is the first thing to be attended 
to in the management of sheep. While every good shep- 
herd is decidedly hostile to their being confined, or to their 
being forced into shelter, whether they wish for it or not, 
it cannot be loo strongly recommended to all sheep far- 
mers, to put the means of avoiding the severity of stormy 
weather within the reach of their flocks at ail times." 



218 



SHELTERS. 



In this matter, the comfort of animals, and the profit 
of man, are promoted by the same means. Shelters are 
beneficial in many respects ; and First, they save a very 
considerable amount of food. 

All practical farmers know full well, that every de- 
scription of stock may be fattened much more rapidly 
in a mild temperature, than when the weather is extreme- 
ly cold, and that animals will consume more food in 
extreme cold, or only moderately cold weather, than 
when the temperature is mild ; and sheep managers are 
fully sensible that the sheep is not an exception to oth- 
er animals, in this respect. 

Hence good shelters, by lessening the cold to which the 
sheep is exposed, diminish also the amount of food which 
is necessary for them. 

But in order to understand this subject scientifically, 
it will be necessary to bear in mind, that all the varie- 
ties of their food is composed principally of carbon, and 
also that their flesh and fat, wool and horns are com- 
posed mostly of the same material, as may be seen by 
the following table : — 



Carbon, - - - 
Hydrogen, - 
Oxygen, - - 

Nitrogen, - - 
Athes, - - - 
Sulphur & Ox- 
ygen, - - - 



■ Hay. 


Oats, t 


45.8 


50.7 


5.0 


6.4 


38.7 


36.7 


1.5 


2.2 


9.00 


4.0 







Flesh 


Mutton fat. 


51.S 


79.99 


7.6 


11.70 


21.2 


9.30 


15.1 




4.2 




100.0 


100.00 



Wool 

50.65 
7.02 

17.71 



24.60 



Horns ' 

51.54 

6.77 

17.28 



24.39 



By this table it aapears, that hay and oats, flesh, wool, 
and horns contain carbon, in nearly equal proportions. 
Hence, at first view, it would seem that a given amount 
of hay and oats ought to produce a regular proportional 
amount of flesh, wool and horns. But the carbon which 
is taken into the animal system by digestion, is used for 
distinct purposes: one is the production of flesh and fat, 
wool and horns ; and the other purpose is, the production 
of animal heat, by slow combustion in the lungs. When- 



SHELTERS. 219 

ever, therefore, for want of shelter, the animal is expos- 
ed to extreme cold weather, 'or wet weather, which 
chills the body, an increased amount of carbon will be 
necessary as fuel in the lungs, in order to keep up that 
even temperature of the body, which is necessary for 
the proper action and preservation of the animal system ; 
and unless the carbon be supplied in food, the tissues of 
flesh and fat will be wasted, in order to furnish the ne- 
cessary quantity. In such case, shelter, by lessening the 
cold to which the animal is exposed, will lessen the 
amount of food which will be necessary to the system, in 
order to keep it at the proper temperature, will be in part a 
substitute for food. 

Second. Protection increases the quantity arid preserves 
the quality of the wool. 

Whatever contributes towards the preservation or in- 
crease of flesh and fat, also promotes the growth of the 
wool and the secretion of yolk. For, if the sheep be in 
good condition, the glands of the skin will act with strength, 
and regularity; the fibres of wool will consequently be uni- 
form in size, and a full supply of yolk will be produced, 
so as to give the wool all that softness, pliability and bril- 
liancy which can be obtained only by keeping the sheep in 
a mild temperature, as in Spain, or by a full measure of pro- 
tection as, in Saxony. 

Third. With proper protection, sheep are much less 
liable to disease and death, than if exposed to the severity 
of the weather. Cold and wet weather have a direct ten- 
dency to produce foot rot, scab, coryza and dropsy, and, 
above all, poverty and rot, which last mentioned, disease 
is very frequently an unsuspected cause of death. Cold 
and wet weather close the pores of the skin, and if the 
fleece be wet through, have the same injurious effect upon 
the sheep as upon other animals. 

Fourthly. As ewes which have the benefit of shelter, 
will be more healthy than those which are exposed to the 
inclemency of the weather, they will rarely need mechan- 
ical aid in parturition ; a greater number of lambs may be 
raised, and the lambs will be healthy as their dams. 

Fifthly. A greater quantity of manure can be saved, 
so as to be distributed on such parts of the farm as may 
most need it. Whereas, if the sheep be permitted to run 



22U SHELTERS. 

at large and find shelter as best they can, a large share of 
their manure, in winter, will be deposited by the sides of 
fences, and in other places where it is least needed. 

Sixth. It is a great convenience to be able to fodder en- 
tirely under shelter; and the hay and straw of every kind 
will be eaten up cleaner than if it is exposed to wet 
weather. 

Those who are opposed to the sheltering of sheep in 
winter, assert that the breath of sheep, and the effluvia of 
their manure are injurious to them. In ill-ventilated and 
ill-cleansed sheep stalls, these circumstances sometimes 
produce serious diseases; but with proper ventilation and 
removal of their manure, sheep will no more be liable to 
injury by their shelters, than are cattle or horses. 

The experience of Mr. L. A. Morrell, of Tompkins coun- 
ty, New York, will illustrate this subject : 

" Before he had provided shelter for his flock of Saxony 
sheep, 1,200 in number, he lost from 70 to 100 annually, 
during winter, and once lost 150. For four successive 
years after protection was provided, the average number 
wintered being 1800, the average yearly loss amounted to 
only 31, being less than If per cent." 

Mr. L. A. Morrell is satisfied, that at least one ton to the 
hundred sheep, is saved by protection every winter, (in his 
latitude). He says, " Of oats which I fed liberally before 
protection, the amount saved is equivalent to 500 bushels 
each year, and yet my sheep have been in finer order 
than when they were grained ; showing, notwithstanding 
the virtue of grain, that there is more virtue in warm 
shelter. The same successful manager has also found, 
that the aggregate increase in four clips of wool from his 
flock, resulting from protection, amounted to 1250 pounds ; 
and that the increased number of lambs exceeded one hun- 
dred a year." — (Cultivator.) 



QUANTITY AND QUALITIES OF FOOD. 221 

SECTION XXXIII. 

QUANTITY AND QUALITIES OF FOOD. 

The great value of most articles, which are used as food 
for sheep and other animals in Europe, has induced a much 
greater attention to the economy and principles of feeding 
in those countries, than in America, where such food is com- 
paratively much less valuable. Hence their experiments, 
and the observations of their writers furnish many details and 
principles which are necessary in order to fully under- 
stand this subject. In Europe, it has been ascertained by 
numerous experiments, that animals of the same species, 
after arriving at maturity, if equally well formed, consume 
food in proportion to their weight. This rule will not hold 
good in all cases, but it is sufficiently correct for practical 
uses. 

By the estimate of Mr. Spooner, sheep take 3J per cent 
of their weight in hay per day, to keep them in store con- 
dition. 

Thaer was a long time at the head of the distinguish- 
ed agricultural school of Mogelin, in Prussia, where many 
experiments were conducted in sheep management under 
his eye. He states that " 3^ lbs of dry fodder for a sheep 
daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in 
nutritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better" 

Veit was Professor of Agriculture in the Royal Institu- 
tion of Bavaria. He makes the following observations, 
based upon experiments : 

" The need of fodder is proportioned to the live weight 
of the sheep, and two and a half pounds of the value of 
hay is required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to 
keep the animal in a profitable state. Hence the following 
amount of fodder is required for store sheep." 



22i 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 



For a long wool 
German sheep, 

Rich wool lnfan- 
tado,coarse wool 

Moderately fine 
Merino, 

EscurialElect'ral 

i.e. pure Escurial 



Live weight 

100 lb. 
88 " 

80" 

62 " 



Daily. 


Yearly. 


Summer, 


2.5 


912 


532 


2.2 


803 


473 


2.0 


730 


426 


1.55 


506 


334 



Winter. 

380 
330 
304 
232 



Now if we take Veit's estimate as a correct standard, 
and suppose the average weight of a flock to be 80 lbs. each, 
and the foddering time to be 150 days, or five months, 
this will be two pounds daily, to each sheep, and for 5 
months, 300 lbs., and, consequently, in that time 100 sheep 
will eat 15 tons of hay. It should be borne in mind, that 
this estimate by Veit was made in and for the cold climate 
of Germany, where the winters are severe, and where an- 
imals, of course, consume more food than in more tem- 
perate climes. And, therefore, in latitude 41 or 42 in the 
United States, 15 tons of hay may be, and is considered 
by most farmers as an ample provision for wintering 100 
full grown Merinos. Young sheep of any breed, if thrif- 
ty, require nearly as much food as when they have, arriv- 
ed at maturity ; eat more in proportion to their size than 
full grown sheep. It must be understood, that in this esti- 
mate by Veit and others, good upland hay, well matured 
and well cured, is the standard of nutriment, and that if 
grain or other food is used as an equivalent, allowance 
must be made for it in proportion to its value, as compared 
with hay. Also if the hay be very succulent when cured, 
or is grown on wet lands, or in a wet season, or abounds 
much in stalks, or is made from grasses of an inferior 
kind, an allowance of from 10 to 33 or even 50 per cent, 
in some cases, must be made. 

In dry seasons, the grasses will be fully perfected, and, 
therefore, in such seasons the same weight of grass, hay, 
or other fodder will be much more nourishing than in a 
wet season. 

Special care should be used, that hay and straw of all 
kinds be thoroughly dried before they are put into the barn. 
Mouldy or musty hay or grain is far less nutritious than 
that which is well cured, and moreover has a strong tenden- 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 22" 

cy to create disease. Such fodder is much disliked by 
sheep, and consequently much of it will be wasted. 

The above computations were made with reference to 
keeping sheep in good store condition only. Now whether 
they are to be kept merely in good order, or are to be fat- 
tened, nearly the same bulk of food will be indispensa- 
ble, in order to produce the distension, which is necessary 
to the proper healthy action of the stomach and bowels ; 
and, therefore, so far as the health and convenience of the 
animal is concerned, bulk constitutes an essential part of 
the value of food. 

For the purpose of fattening, it will be necessary that the 
food should comprise, within the same bulk, a greater pro- 
portion of the elements of nutrition than in the above esti- 
mates. Consequently, it will be very convenient to know 
the amount of nutritious matter which is contained in each 
kind of food, and, also, its value, cnmpared with other 
kinds — both for the purpose of fattening, and also in the 
use of equivalents for good hay. 

The following table, given in Burger, from Petri's work 
on the care and keeping of sheep, may be considered 
as a test of equivalents. It will show that while of some 
an animal could scarcely eat enough to support life, of oth- 
ers the nutriment would greatly exceed what the wants of 
the animal demanded. 

100 lbs. sweet meadow hay contains 50 lbs. of nutritious 
matter and is equal to — 

90 lbs. of clover hay, 100 lbs. of which contain 55^ lbs. 

[of nutritious matter, 

tender Vetch hay, do 

tender lentil hay, do 

wheat straw, do 

corn straw (stalks) do 

barley straw, do 

oat straw, do 

pea straw, do 

millet straw, do 

horn bean straw, do 

chaff, (vv heat and oat) do 

potatoes, do 

cabbage turnips, do 



90 


do 


90 


do 


360 


do 


500 


do 


180 


do 


200 


do 


200 


do 


190 


do 


200 


do 


180 


do 


200 


do 


200 


do 



55i 


do 


55-h 


do 


14 


do 


20 


do 


27| 


do 


25 


do 


25 


do 


26i 


do 


25 


do 


27i 


do 


25 


do 


W 


do 



224 



QLANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 



200 lbs. of yellow turnips, 100 lbs. of which contain 25 lbs. 

[of nutritious matter, 
white do 

beets, 

white cabbage, 
wheat, 
Indian corn, 
rye, 
barley, 
buckwheat, 
oats, 
peas, 

wheat bran, 
rye bran, 

Petri gives the following, as examples of averages of 
fodder for an ewe, in the month of January, when the 
yeaning time commences in March. 



200 


do 


300 


do 


500 


do 


52 


do 


52 


do 


55 


do 


61 


do 


64 


do 


71 


do 


54 


do 


105 


do 


109 


do 



do 


12£ 


do 


do 


ief 


do 


do 


10 


do 


do 


95 


do 


do 


95 


do 


do 


90 


do 


do 


82 


do 


do 


78 


do 


do 


70 


do 


do 


93 


do 


do 


48 


do 


do 


46 


do 



1st Day — In the morning, 
noon, 
evening, 

2d Day — In the morning, 
noon, 



evening, 
3d Day — In the morning, 
noon, 
evening, 



4th Day- 



■In the morning 



evening, 
5th Day — In the morning, 



evening, 
6th Day — In the morning, 
noon, 



| lb. good oat sraw. 

\ lb. good hay or clover. 

\ lb. good barley straw. 

\ lb. millet straw. 

2 lb. potatoes, with 4 oz. 

chopped straw, and 4 

oz. oats. 
| lb. barley straw. 
\ lb. hay. 
| lb. hay. 
1 lb. wheat, barley, or 

buckwheat straw. 
\ lb. summer straw. 
\ lb. chopped straw, with 

3 oz. bran moistened 

with water, 
f lb. winter straw. 

1 lb. hay. 

2 lbs. potatoes, with \ lb. 

of chopped straw. 
\ lb. winter straw. 
| lb. hay. 

as in 4th day. 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 225 

If the sheep be left to itself, and be allowed to crop such 
things as the God of Nature has provided for it, it feeds 
principally upon fine stalk grasses, and bitter, astringent, 
and diuretic leaves and weeds. When, therefore, it is 
compelled into a cold climate, the best fodder which can 
be provided for it in winter, is obtained from these same 
articles dried. 

For this purpose, many kinds of grass are cultivated in 
Europe. But of those kinds which are most cultivated in 
the northern part of the United States, Timothy, or meadow 
cats tail grass, (Phleum pratense) appears to be one of the 
best on upland meadows. 

Mr. Youatt says, " this grass is of much value for perma- 
nent pasture, mixed with other grasses, on account of its 
early herbage, its great productiveness, and the superior 
proportion of nutritive matter it contains. A little time "be- 
fore the seed is ripe, at which time it should be cut, it af- 
fords 11^ drachms of nutritive substance to the pound. It 
is most useful in the form of hay." 

The proper time for cutting grass is here pointed out 
by Mr. Youatt. Grasses, which are cut when in flower, or 
previous to that time, are more succulent, but have less 
substantial nutriment in them, than those which are cut af- 
ter the flower is fallen, and their seed i* nearly matured. 
Such young grasses contain much saccharine matter, and 
when made into hay, readily produce acids in the stomach, 
and diarrhoea in consequence, especially if grown in a wet 
season, or on moist lands. Whereas, if grasses are cut 
while the stalks are yet green, but after the flower is fallen 
and the grain is formed, the saccharine matter becomes 
mostly converted into starch, and ceases to be injurious. — 
At this period, also, they contain the largest proportion of 
nutriment. 

Kentucky blue grass, smooth stalked meadow grass, (poa 
pratensis) nearly resembles the June grass or spear grass 
(poa compressa) of more northern States, which is less es- 
teemed. Dr. Darlington says, " Kentucky blue grass is de- 
cidedly the most valuable of all American pasture grass." 
It comes in spontaneously upon rich calcarious soils, and 
is, therefore, considered to be indigenous to the United 
States. It is also one of the best for hay. The Franklin 
(Kentucky) Farmer asserts that it flourishes only on cal- 



226 QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. 

carious soils; but that is not strictly correct; it flourishes 
where there is a fair proportion of lime in the soil. It is 
less liable to be affected by frost than other grasses, and, 
therefore, makes the best of winter pasturage. 

Herds' grass — red top and ichite top — (Agrostis Vulga- 
ris) is a spontaneous growth of the wetlands of the United 
States. — (Buel.) The red top and white top are different 
varieties of the same grass. It is very hardy, and is easily 
cultivated. If cut when it is fully matured, it makes excel- 
lent hay, and on fiftflfist soils is valuable for pasture. 

Ox eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) is gen- 
erally considered a vile weed: but if it is cut when in 
flower, it makes good hay for sheep, cattle, and horses ; 
and for pasture, sheep prefer it to almost any grass what- 
ever ; it is aromatic and mucilagenous.* It is very hardy, 
and will grow on dry, sandy, and gravelly, or other poor 
upland soils, where grasses will hardly live, much less 
flourish ; and, therefore, on some lands may be advanta- 
geously sown for sheep pasture. 

Creeping White Clover, (Tri folium repens) is a peren- 
nial plant, which is common to Europe and the United 
States, growing spontaneously in pastures, meadows, and 
woodlands, to the height of from 4 to 12 inches. It gener- 
ally grows too short to be exclusively used for hay ; but is 
useful when mixed with other grasses. It is very sweet 
and nutritious grass for pasture, and is much relished by 
sheep, but is not very productive. 

Red Clover (Trifolium protense), is very nutritive, and 
is well relished by sheep for hay or pasture, especially 
when mixed with timothy or other upland grasses ; but the 
bulk required for them is very great, and hence it will be 
no object for the farmer to cultivate clover, for hay for 
sheep, on soils where timothy, or blue grass, or other use- 
ful fine stalk grasses can be cultivated with less difficulty. 
But on dry ground, or sandy soils, where those grasses are 
cultivated with difficulty, and do not flourish, clover will 
be an useful substitute. It penetrates deep into the ground 
and bears the drought better than most grasses. 

The above mentioned grasses, together with those other 



gras 



ses and herbage which are indigenous to various parts 



* See Livingston on Sheep, page 72. 



QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. 227 

of the United States, will furnish on most farms a sufficient 
variety of hay and pasture. 

All the various kinds of straw of grains and leguminous 
plants, are to be viewed only as substitutes for good hay, 
and are to be fed only for the purpose of economy, or for 
the sake of furnishing a part of that great variety of food, 
in which the sheep delights. If the best of out straw be 
placed in the same manger along with hay, only a small 
proportion of the straw will be eaten by the sheep, as long 
as the hay lasts. 

This is evidently the opinion of Thaer upon this subject. 
He says, " The quantitjr of hay which is given to sheep, 
(in Germany,) is very different. In poor sheep folds, it is 
considered much to allow 3,000 or 4,000 pounds of hay 
10 100 sheep for wintering. In better conducted ones, 
7,500 lbs. is considered the minimum for sheep; 3| lbs. of 
dry fodder for sheep daily are necessary, and the greater 
proportion of this in nutritious hay, compared with dry 
straw, the better. 

Hence, in Germany, and other parts of Europe, where 
it is an object to raise as much grain as possible, large 
quantities of straw are produced, and much of this straw 
is fed to sheep in Germany, for the sake of economy, 
and the deficiency in nutriment of straw is made up by 
feeding grains, leguminous seeds, (beans, peas, vetches, 
and lentils), and roots; and the manure of sheep being 
more valuable than that of any other domesticated quad- 
ruped, the folding and pasturage of sheep alternates wpll 
with the raising of grain. In many cases it will be 
profitable to preserve the same course in America. 

1. — Oat straw. Of those kinds of straw which are cul- 
tivated in America, oat straw is one of the best. If cut 
when rather green, there will be little or no diminution in 
weight or quality of the grain, and the straw will be very 
nutritious, and a portion of it is well relished by sheep. 

2. — Buckwheat has rather a fine straw, and is well fill- 
ed with leaves, and is equal in value to the straw of win- 
ter grain. As a large quantity of it may be raised on lands 
which are too poor to raise other grains or grass, in some 
cases, it may be very convenient and useful fodder for 
sheep. 

3. — Wheat straw. The straw of bald wheat may be fed 



223 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 

with propriety to sheep. But the straw of bearded grains, 
such as bearded wheat, rye, or barley, (the straw of which 
is more nutritious than that of wheat,) should be fed to 
them only in case of great scarcity of fodder ; as the beards 
of such grains frequently produce braxy. 

4. — Indian Corn, (Maize). The blades and stalks con- 
tain much saccharine matter and are very nutritious. The 
finer parts of them are highly relished by the sheep. The 
hard stalks when cut up are eaten freely by cattle. The 
cobs of Indian corn may be ground with the grain, and be- 
ing very nutritious may be fed advantageously to sheep. 
In very dry seasons, when there is a scarcity of hay, or on 
farms where the quantity of meadow land is small in pro- 
portion to that of the pasture, Indian corn may be sown 
broadcast, and cut and cured when it is three or four feet 
high, so as to form a very nourishing and productive sub- 
stitute for hay. 

5. — Beans and Peas. The straw of beans, peas and oth- 
er leguminous plants, if cut and thoroughly cured when 
those articles are rather green, is much relished by sheep, 
and is nearly equal to hay. In such case, the straw and 
seeds may be fed together, without threshing. If the seeds 
of peas and beans are allowed to become fully ripe before 
they are harvested, sheep will not readily eat either the 
pea or bean straw. But such ripe pea straw is much rel- 
ished by horses, and cattle prefer the pods of ripe bean 
straw to almost any other food. 

6. — Millet. The grain of this plant contains much nu- 
triment, and it produces a great bulk of straw which is 
much esteemed as fodder. — (London.) 

Apples and Roots are fed advantageously to sheep, either 
as in part a substitute for hay, or for the sake of variety, 
or for the health of the flock. 

Of these, the potatoe is one of the best articles. They 
are sufficiently succulent to keep the bowels open, and at 
the same time are very nutritious Apples answer much 
the same purpose as potatoes and are much relished by 
sheep, 

Jerusalem Artichoke, (Helianthus tuberosus.) The 
tops of artichokes if cut and cured while green, and before 
they are injured by frost, are excellent fodder for sheep and 
cattle. The roots are the b^t of cncculent food fc *heep, 



QUALITY Ai\x> QUANTITY Of FOOD. 229 

and they do not readily producejdiarrhoea. They are not sub- 
ject to rot by disease like potatoes ; and as 600 or 800 
bushels to the acre may be raised without difficulty, they 
are the least expensive roots which can be grown for sheep 
in the northern part of the United States. 

Carrots are very nourishing, and are undoubtedly one 
of the healthiest articles which can be provided (or sheep 
in winter. But as their cultivaiion is somewhat trouble- 
some, they will be little used for this purpose on large 
farms. 

Beets contain much nutriment, and are much used in 
Europe for the fattening of animals, and near large towns 
in the United States, where mutton is valuable, may, per- 
haps, in some cases, be used advantageously for the same 
purpose. 

Turnips are used to a vast amount, and with great ad- 
vantage, in Europe, for the same purpose. But in the Uni- 
ted States, the climate is too dry and scorching, in most 
parts, to admit of their extensive cultivation, and, there- 
fore, large flock-owners must depend principally upon pota- 
toes, apples and artichokes, for succulent winter food for 
sheep. 

As to food designed for flattening, the experience of 
farmers has already been in favor of the principle, that 
food, which contains oil, is most productive of fat. The 
oil contained in such food is assimilated by the digestive 
process to the fat of the animal using it. Beech nuts, Lin- 
seed oil cake, and Indian corn, each contain a large pro- 
portion of oil, and consequently are highly valued for this 
purpose. 

Liebig has advanced the doctrine, that vegetable food, 
as wheat, potatoes, beets, &c, is fattening on account of 
the starch, sugar and gum which it contains; that starch, 
sugar and gum being composed of the same ingredients as 
fat, (viz. carbon, oxygen and hydrogen,) are readily con- 
verted into fat by digestion. This unquestionably is cor- 
rect in principle ; but yet in ordinary farm management, 
it is found cheapei and more expeditious, to use a propor- 
tion of food which already contains oil, rather than to wait 
for the transformation out of the starch, sugar, &c, which 
are contained in vegetables and seeds. 

The following table will show the amount of oil contain- 



230 QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. 

ed in sundry kinds of vegtable food, and, consequently, 
their comparative value for fattening : 



Indian Corn, 


9 to 10 


per cent, of oil 


Oats, 


4 to 5 


do 


Wheat, 


2£ to 2.} 


do 


Bran, 


4 to 5 


do 


Straw, 


1 to \% 


do 


Clover hay, 


4 


do 


Meadow hay, 


3$ to 4 


do 


Peas and Beans, 


2| to 3 


do 


Beach mast, 


15 to 17 


do 


Sanflower seed, 
Linseed, 


15 


do 
do 


11 to 22 


Hempsced, 


18 to 25 


do 


Linseed oil-cake, 


9 to 10 


do 



These proportions are not constant; for the amount of 
oil depends upon the season, increasing with the brilliancy 
and dryness of the weather. Potatoes, beets, carrots, tur- 
nips, and mangel wurtzel, contain less than one-quarter 
per cent, of oil, and, therefore, are not so well adapted to 
fattening, when used alone; are best when fed with some 
kind of grain or meal. 

One of the most successful articles in the list is Linseed 
meal, or oil-cake. But Linseed, or the oil-cake, are used 
most beneficially mixed with meal of oats, peas, or other 
farinaceous grains, or with cut straw, in o»'der to preserve 
the health of animals. Indian corn, also, coniains so much 
oil that it is used most advantageously in the same manner. 
These two articles — oil-cake and Indian corn — and all oth- 
er grains which contain much oil, readily produce diarr- 
hoea, unless used in moderate quantities, or combined with 
other ingredients; and being more difficult of digestion, are 
not so beneficial alone, as constant feed for stock sheep, as 
oats, barley, buckwheat, and other more farinaceous grains. 

As a general rule in feeding, the quantity should always 
be adapted to the quality ; and such combinations should 
be formed as both to distend the stomach, and afford the 
necessary nutriment. Grain alone, or roots alone, would 
not answer both these purposes, and, therefore, when used, 
they should ever be fed along with hay or straw. The 
leaves or straw of herbage, are also necessary for the pro- 
cess of rumination. 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 



231 



The following table will exhibit the results of the exper- 
iments of the distinguished Agriculturist, M. De Raumer, 
of Silesia, and the effects produced by an equal quantity of 
several substances, in increasing the flesh, tallow, and wool 
of sheep. 



Produ- 
ced tal- 
low. 



1000 lbs. of Potatoes raw with salt, 

do do do without salt, 

do do Mangel Wurtzel, raw, 

do do Wheat, 

do do Oats, 

do do Barley, 

do do Peas, 

do do Rye with salt, 

do do do without salt, 

do do Meal, wet, 

do do Buckwheat, 

do do Good hay, 

do do Hay with straw,with 
out other fodder, 



Increa- 




sed the 




w'ghtof 


Prod- 


the liv- 


uced 


ing ani- 


wool. 


mal. 




46 h lbs. 


6k\bs. 


44 


Gh 


38^ 


fi* 


155 


14 


146 


10 


136 


It* 


134 


m 


133 


14 


90 


I2i 


129 


m 


120 


10 


58 


n 


31 


15£ 



<2 

i 

59 £ 

42* 

60 

41 

36 

43 

m 

33 
13 

kt 



These resnlts agree nearly with those of De Dombal, 
and with those of a number of other agriculturists. De 
Raumer found, " that sheep ate with avidity eight pounds 
of mangel wurtzel a day, intermixed with straw ; during 
which time they drank one quart of water, and remained 
in good and healthy condition." 

'* That of raw sliced potatoes, they ate, with good appe- 
tite, at the rate of seven pounds per day, also with straw, 
and drank three pints of water in twenty-four hours ; also 
remained healthy. 

" That they ate two pounds of peas daily per head, drank 
from two to three quarts of water, and remained fine and 
healthy. It was necessary to soak the peas to prevent in- 
jury to the teeth. 

** That wheat produced nearly the same result as peas. 



232 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF F00D- 

" That they do not eat rye readily, and it appears not 
well adapted to their use. 

" That of oats and barley they ate about two and a half 
pounds per head daily, with avidity, did extremely well on 
it, and drank about three quarts of water in twenty-four 
hours. 

" That buckwheat produced excellent effects upon them, 
and that they ate it with avidity. 

" And that of good hay they ate four and a half pounds 
daily, and drank from two and a half to three quarts of wa- 
ter." 

From the quantity of hay consumed, we may conclude 
that the sheep upon which these experiments were made, 
were of large size. 

It will be perceived by the above table, that wheat pro- 
duces the greatest increase in flesh of the living animal, 
though but little greater than oats ; that barley and wheat 
produce the greatest increase of tallow ; that hay, with 
some straw, produces the greatest increase of wool ; and 
that peas, wheat, and rye are the next most valuable arti- 
cles for this purpose. 

That on an average, grain generally gives about three 
times the increase in flesh that roots and hay do, when in 
equal weights ; that grain produces about twice as much 
wool as is caused by an equal weight of roots, and four or 
five times as much tallow as is produced by either roots or 
hay; that potatoes and mangel wurtzel produce a far 
greater amount of wool, according to the amount of nutri- 
ment contained in them, than hay, oais, wheat, or other 
grain. 

From the results of the foregoing experiments, we may, 
therefore, conclude, that when wool is the principal object, 
we must depend, in winter, upon good hay with come 
straw, with a moderate daily allowance of oats, buckwheat, 
peas, or beans, together with some potatoes, mangel wurt- 
zel, or apples, as green food, for ihe greatest amount of 
wool; and we may expect the greatest increase in flesh and 
fat, from the feeding a moderate, portion of oil-cake", barley, 
or Indian corn, along with oats buckwheat, or other farin- 
aceous grains. 

That hay or straw may be used to the best advantage, it 
should be fed in racks or mangers, if possible. And for 



WATER. 233 

this purpose, mangers or boxes are preferable to racks. — 
Sheep are very apt to pull the hay out of racks, so as to get 
their feet upon it ; after which they refuse to eat it. There* 
fore, if hay or straw is fed to them by scattering it upon 
the ground, a very considerable portion of it will always bo 
wasted. 

Grain is fed most advantageously in flat-bottomed troughs. 
In such case, the grain being scattered, they do not readily 
gorge and choke themselves. 



SECTION XXXIV. 
WATER. 

It is computed by physiologists that at least one half of 
the animal system is composed of water. Water, there- 
fore, is not only nutriment, but it is also the vehicle by 
which all other nutriment is conveyed through the lacteal 
ducts, and other absorbents, into the blood. Hence, at no 
other time is the sheep so healthy and thrifty as when feed- 
ing on succulent grasses in dry summer weather. Such 
grasses, on an average, contain as much as two-thirds wa- 
ter, and one-third solid matter. 

In summer, when no dew falls, the sheep occasionally 
drink a little water. But when dew falls regularly, sheep 
kept in pastures will, for months in succession, hardly taste 
a drop of water. They prefer feeding mostly early in tha 
morning, or in the evening, when the dew is on the grass; 
and this dew ordinarily affords all the water which is neces- 
sary for them, in addition to what is contained in the gras- 
ses. 

But when snow is on the ground, and they are confined 
entirely to dry hay or straw, their repugnance to eating 
snow is such, that an insufficient supply of water will be 
thus obtained, and they will become, in some measure, cos- 
tive and feverish, and, in consequence, many of them will 
pine away and lose flesh. 

By the experiments of De Raumer r it appears that when 



234 WATER. 

confined to dry hay and straw, the sheep ate four and 
a half lbs. of dry fodder, and drank from two and a half to 
three quarts of water. 

This experiment shows conclusively that, when confined 
to dry fodder, the sheep needs about one-fourth more 
weight of water than of hay or straw. For this purpose, a 
full supply of water should be provided for them in winter 
at least once a day. If they can have ihe privilege of ac- 
cess to a spring, or water running from a spring, at ail 
times, it will be far preferable ; otherwise, water drawn 
from a well will suffice. In such case, they will never in- 
jure themselves by drinking too much, let the weather be 
ever so cold. But if permitted to drink only once in two 
or three days, sheep, like other animals under like circum- 
stances, may sometimes drink so much as to injure them- 
selves. 

It should be remembered that the principles of digestion 
are much the same in different kinds of ruminating ani- 
mals, and that, consequently, the sheep, when fed upon 
dry hay, has the same need for its proper supply of water, 
as cattle when fed in the same manner. The sheep, it is 
true, can live, can exist, longer without water than most 
animals. M. Daubenton found by experiment, that a 
sheep could live a whole month on dry hay and straw, 
without water; but if deprived of it, even for one day, it 
would, on the succeeding day. drink an extra quantity, 
which showed that it was tormented with thirst. 

De Raumer found that of raw sliced potatoes, a sheep 
ate, with good appetite, at the rate of seven pounds per 
day, along with straw, and drank three pints of water in 
twenty-four hours, and continued healthy. In this case, 
the sheep drank only half as much as when fed entirely 
on dry fodder. This experiment shows that green food, in 
winter, besides furnishing a portion of that, great variety of 
food in which the sheep delights, and which contributes so 
largely towards their healthiness, is also, in part, a substi- 
tute for water. But if a full supply of salt and water is 
provided for them, they will seldom be troubled with cos- 
tiveness, or the drying of the manifolds, which are indica- 
ted bv stretches. 



FALL MANAGEMENT, 235 

SECTION XXXV. 

MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, 

A natural arrangement of the subject is, doubtless, the 
best of any, and will be adhered to as far as the nature of 
the subject will permit — selecting such rules as are of gen- 
eral application, and such as are generally used by experi- 
enced flock-masters. 

FALL MANAGEMENT. 

PUTTING RAMS TO EWES. 

The proper time for putting ewes to rams, will depend 
in some measure upon the breed cultivated. The lambs 
of coarse-wooled sheep, when first dropped, bear cold bet- 
ter than those of fine-wooled sheep : and hence, coarse- 
wooled sheep may be put earlier to the ram than fine- 
wooled sheep. If the lambs of such sheep are intended 
for the butcher, and a supply of succulent spring food is 
provided, the ewes should yean early in spring. But those 
who choose to take that method, either with coarse or fine- 
wooled sheep, which is most convenient, and which affords 
the best chance for raising the greatest number of lambs, 
will put the ewes to ram at such time that the lambs may 
be dropped when there will be a good bite of grass in spring, 
so as to produce a supply of milk for the iambs. Conse- 
quently, the proper time for this purpose will depend upon 
the latitude and climate. 

In Prussian Silesia it has been found, by experience, 
that Merino lambs which are dropped in summer, produce 
a quality of wool which is superior to that of those which 
are dropped in winter; and hence, the rams and ewes are 
there coupled in January, and the lambs are dropped in 
June. 

The ewes of coarse-wooled sheep should not be put to 
the ram until they are about 20 or 22 months old ; and the 
young ewes of fine-wooled sheep, not till they are 30 or 32 
months old. Until they have attained these ages respec- 
tively, they hove not the strength which is necessary to fur- 
nish a full supply of milk and raise strong lambs. Those 



236 FALL MANAGEMENT. 

which are of quite inferior size should not be permitted to 
breed at any age. 

Ewes should be selected for breeders having not only the 
requisite qualities as to form, wool, and good constitutions, 
but also those having good milking qualities should be pre- 
ferred. For this purpose, see that they have good teats 
and udders; that there are no hard schirhus lumps upon 
their udders. Ewes, having defective udders, cannot give 
the supply of milk which is necessary for the lamb, and, 
therefore, such ewes should be rejected ; as all those which 
have had difficulty in lambing from malformation ; they 
will be again subject to the same difficulty. No other but 
healthy animals of either sex should be used for breeding. 

Old ewes should be excused from breeding. The best 
flock-masters in England, fatten and sell ofF their ewes 
(coarse-wooled ewes,) at four, or, at most, at five years 
old. It was the opinion of the celebrated Mr. Ellman, that 
though an old ewe would bring a large lamb, yet, generally 
speaking, such a lamb would not make as large or fine a 
sheep, or fatten as well, as a lamb from a younger ewe. — 
Merino sheep are longer in coming to maturity than Brit- 
ish sheep, and the ewes may, with propriety, be kept breed- 
ing until they are seven or eight years old. After which, 
it will be well to fatten and dispose of them, unless their 
teeth and constitution are more than usually good. 

Rams should be selected having, as nearly as possible, 
all the points and qualities most desirable, and of a size 
properly proportioned to that of the ewes. The ram should 
not be too large in proportion to the size of the ewe ; if too 
large, there will sometimes be difficulty in lambing, and 
the ewe may not have a supply of milk for such large si- 
zed lambs. Rams and ewes should be selected for each 
other, so that the good points of one may remedy the de- 
fects of the other, as far as possible, in their progeny ; and 
always preferring the best blooded animals, if equally per- 
fect in other respects. 

For a few weeks before the rams are used, they should 
have first-rate pasture or hay, with as much grain, and on- 
ly so much, as will be necessary in order to put them in 
first-rate order. A gill of oats, or its equivalent in wheat, 
buckwheat, or other grain, daily, will be sufficient. If ex- 
tra services are required, a little more than the usual quan- 



FALL MANAGEMENT. 237 

cities of grain should be allowed them ; and in such case, 
this extra feeding should continue during the rutting sea- 
sons, and for two or three weeks after the rams are taken 
from the ewes, lest they should become impoverished. 

The number of ewes which may be put with each ram, 
will depend upon the breed, the age and vigor of the ram, 
and the manner of management. 

If a number of rams be turned into good pasture along 
with the whole number of ewes, as in Spain, it will be pro- 
per to admit only about 25 ewes to each ram. This mode 
is practised in Spain from necessity, but is not the best 
method. The rams are very apt, in such case, to fight too 
much, and the strongest rams are apt to obtain for them- 
selves a greater number of ewes than are consistent with 
the retention of their own vigor, and the strength of their 
progeny. 

If each ram be kept in a separate fold or pasture by him- 
self, and eight or ten ewes only be turned in with him the 
first day, and only about the same number each succeeding 
day until 40 or 50 are put with him, in such case neither 
he nor his progeny will be injured by his being overtasked, 

If the ram be kept in a yard by himself, and the ewes, 
which are rutting, be ascertained by an aproned teaser, and 
are brought to the ram at regular intervals during the day, 
such ram, if of mature age and vigor, will be sufficient for 
150 or 200 ewes. In such case, the ewes should be thrown 
out as fast as they are tupped. And in all cases where 
large services are required of rams, it will be prudent to 
keep them from the ewes at night, and feed them well. 

The above calculations are based upon the supposition, 
in each case, that the rams are of mature age and vigorous. 
If the rams are very young, (yearlings or two year olds,) 
or are oldish and past their full vigor, only one-third or 
one-half as many ewes should be put with them. 

Improved British breeds come to maturity sooner than 
ihe Merino by one year, on an average — are as far advan- 
ced at 18 months old as the Merino at 30 months, and may 
!)e used proportionally sooner. The Merino ram does not 
main its full size and vigor till past three years old. 

Overtasking the male produces a weak progeny, and, 
herefore, should be avoided. Nothing is gained by coup- 
ling the ram with too many ewes at an early age, as his 



233 FALL MANAGEMENT. 

vigor fails him proportionally sooner. If not overtasked 
when young, the coarse-wooled ram may be used for breed- 
ing till six or seven years old, and the Merino till eight or 
nine years old. Merinos, of both sexes, have been known 
to breed till 15 years old. 

While the rams are with the ewes, the ewes should have 
better feed than they previously had. If they are neither 
very fat nor very thin in flesh, and are moderately fed with 
stimulating food during the rutting season, and are allowed 
to range about in fields, or are driven about so as to obtain 
suitable exercise, which helps to bring them in heat, but few 
will remain barren. 

The ewe comes in heat at intervals of about seven days. 
Therefore, as, during the lambing season, special attention 
to the ewes will be necessary; it frill be most convenient to 
leave the rams with the ewes only about three weeks or a 
month ; within which time, if proper care is used, but few 
will remain barren ; and by noting the time when the 
rams are placed with the ewes, and when removed from 
them, we may know when to relax our attention to them 
in spring. 

FALL FEEDING. 

As soon as severe frosts come on in fall, the grass be- 
comes less nourishing and wholesome; and though ani- 
mals, having the appetite sharpened by cold weather, eat it 
freely, and fill themselves well and look plump, they grad- 
ually lose flesh, unless something be afforded to them which 
is more nourishing than grass. At this time, therefore, 
iambs, old sheep and breeding ewes should be fed with a 
portion of hay or grain, or both, in order to prevent their 
declining in health. Hay, besides affording good nourish- 
ment, helps to prevent diarrhoea. Lambs and feeble sheep 
should have access to shelters early in fall. 

Strong wethers, and rams which are not used for breed- 
ing, need less attention, and with the necessary condiments, 
and some grain, may be kept mostly on grass through the 
winter, if the ground is bare, or on hay without grain. 

If the flock begins the winter in good condition as to 
health and flesh 3 there will be little difficulty in getting 
most of them through the winter with proper care. But if 
they are in bad condition on the approach of severe weath- 



WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239 

er, it will be almost impossible to put flesh on them during 
its continuance. For this reason, the same quantity of 
grain fed in November and December, will be worth to 
them at least three times as much as if fed only in Febru- 
ary and March. The extra flesh and fat, which is laid up- 
on them by good feeding early in fall and winter, helps 
to defend them against the influence of cold — fat being a 
non-conductor of heat. Whereas, if the same grain be fed 
to them in February and March, after the digestive powers 
of many of them have failed, such ones cannot be restored ; 
they must perish.' 



SECTION XXXVI. 

WINTER MANAGEMENT. 
SORTING. 

On the approach of winter, sheep should be sorted with 
reference to sex, age, size, and condition as to flesh, so as 
to give to each kind the requisite proportion of food, and a 
chance to obtain it, without being driven away by others. 

Barren Merino ewes, if in good condition, will take the 
ram at any season of the year, and, therefore, neither they 
nor ewe lambs, after being weaned, should be permitted to 
run with rams at any time, except for the purpose of breed- 
ing. 

And as, notwithstanding the most skilful management, 
some will generally become during fall or winter, more 
than usually poor or diseased, such animals should be sort- 
ed out, and a comfortable place should be provided for 
them, where they may receive all the extra food and atten- 
tion which their case requires, until they are restored ; and 
if any are seen declining, they should be removed to this 
place in due season. By delay of attention, poverty and 
disease increase, and restoration becomes more difficult. 

MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 

If first-rate animals are wanted, they should not be over- 



240 WINTER MANAGEMENT. 

fed, so as to force them, but should always be well fed 
from the earliest period of their existence until their growth 
is complete. If they are scantily fed for any considerable 
lime while they are growing, they become stunted, and no 
after management or nourishment can eradicate the effects 
of short feed or neglect at this period. 

With this view, a few old sheep or wethers, should be 
placed in each flock of lambs, in order to learn them to eat 
hay, grain and roots, &c. 

After the grasses are injured by frost, they should be 
fed daily, in the morning, a little first rate hay, and at noon 
or evening a half gill or less of oats to each of the flock, 
if Merinos or other small sheep's lambs; taking care to 
distribute the grain so far along in the troughs, that each 
one may have a chance to partake of it. 

After ten days, the quantity of grain may be gradually 
increased to twice the above amount, or, for the sake of 
variety, an equivalent in buckwheat, barley or other grain ; 
but for lambs, either of those three articles will be pre- 
ferable to Indian corn ; less injurious to their tender teeth. 

If the lambs are of the large, coarse wooled breeds, 
nearly or quite twice as much grain may be fed to them 
daily. Such lambs grow faster than Merinos, and need 
more food in proportion to their size. And these largest 
portions of grain should be fed to them daily, through the 
remainder of the season, to each kind its proportion. 

Whenever, for the health of the flock, or the better 
growth of wool, it may be thought best to feed them with 
potatoes or other roots, these articles should be cut or 
chopped fine with a root cutter, spade or otherwise, so that 
they may be eaten by them, and should be sprinkled with 
meal of oats, or other grain, and a little salt, until they 
learn to eat them without meal. A bushel of roots or ap- 
ples may be fed to each hundred daily, or thrice weekly, 
as may be expedient. They will generally eat apples very 
readily, without meal. 

Some persons feed more largely than the above propor- 
tions of grain, especially in severe cold climates ; but those 
who wish to produce the first quality of wool will feed so 
much, and only so much grain, either to lambs or other 
sheep, as will keep them in good thriving condition. This 



WINTER MANAGEMENT. 241 

amount will vary in different climates, and may be deter- 
mined by experience. 

As soon as cold, rainy or stormy weatber comes on, tbe 
lambs should have the benefit of shelters, which they can 
use at pleasure; and care should be used that lambs, and all 
other kinds of sheep, have sufficient room at their racks or 
mangers, so that each one may feed without being crowd- 
ed, and that hay, or occasionally straw, be fed to them at 
least twice daily . 

YEARLING S AND BREEDING EWES. 

Some persons winter sheep of these kinds upon hay only. 
But if the flock be large, the hay must be of an extra 
quality, or they cannot be kept in good store condition 
through a northern winter in this manner. Breeding ewes 
are generally somewhat exhausted by raising lambs, and 
yearlings are still growing and need more nourishment in 
proportion to their size, than full grown sheep. Animals 
of mature age require only food sufficient to keep the sys- 
tem as it is ; but growing animals not only require enough 
for this purpose, but also in addition sufficient to form new 
parts; and, in so doing, their digestive organs are more 
active than those of full grown animals, and consequently 
they use a larger proportion of food according to their size. 

Yearlings, therefore, of all kinds, will need quite as 
much food as breeding ewes ; and both should be fed as 
much grain and succulent food in addition to hay and straw, 
as will keep them in good condition. 

For this purpose a gill of oats, or its equivalent in buck- 
wheat, corn, peas, or beans, or a mixture of some of these 
articles may be fed to them once or twice a day, as may 
be found necessary, increasing the quantity of grain at 
times as may be expedient. Beans seem to be particular- 
ly adapted to the use of the sheep, on account of the large 
proportion of soda which they contain, and are highly rel- 
ished by them. When the ground is covered with snow, 
so that they are confined to dry fodder, a bushel of apples, 
or roots may be fed to them twice or three times weekly," 
with good effect. 

RAMS AND WETHERS. 

If rams and wethers begin the winter in good condition, 



242 WINTER MANAGEMENT. 

they may, generally, be well wintered upon hay and some 
straw, without grain. But if any of them are quite thin 
in flesh, or if rams have been used for propagation, they 
should be sorted out and should receive better feed and at- 
tention than the rest of the flock ; and if any are designed 
to be fattened off on grass the ensuing summer, they also 
should be better fed than others during winter. 

REGULARITY OF FEEDING-. 

The digestive process in healthy animals is very regu- 
lar ; the stomach needs and can digest in a given time its 
regular quantum of food. This quantity, therefore, should 
be supplied with as much regularity to animals as to man, 
if we desire them to thrive ; and they have the same suf- 
ferings, if it is withheld. 

The quantity, as well as kinds of food, which should.be 
fed to them, will depend upon the temperature of the 
weather, the quality of the fodder, and the condition of the 
flock. And judgment must be used, in rightly proportion- 
ing the quantity to the quality, and in making the proper 
changes of food ; and, in order to keep them in a healthy 
and thrifty condition, they should never be compelled to 
eat much at any one time, of any article of food, which 
they do not relish. 

As it is generally desirable to make use of such grains 
and other articles as are raised on the farm, the table of 
equivalents will be found very useful, in adjusting the quan- 
tities of each kind of food. 

In summer time, when the sheep is at pasture, the prin- 
cipal feeding is done mornings and evenings ; a large pro- 
portion of the middle parts of the day, being devoted to rest 
and rumination. In winter, we should allow them to take 
much the same course. 

The hay and straw, therefore, should be fed princi- 
pally mornings and evenings. But if th;e weather be 
severely cold, a small additional foddering of hay at 
noon will be necessary along with grain, or succulent food. 
But in moderate winter weather, if grain or succulent 
food is fed but once daily, it should be at noon, and in such 
case, will be sufficient without hay. 

At each foddering, so much, and only so much, should 
be fed, as will be fully necessary for them, in the intervals 



WINTER MANAGEMENT. 243 

of foddering. In such case, the fodder being always fresh 
and uninjured by their breath, they will eat it cleaner than 
if over-fed, and little will be wasted. If, however, at any 
time, orts of hay or straw be left in the racks or mangers, 
such orts may be occasionally sprinkled with weak brine, 
and will then be readily consumed. For this purpose, 
a watering pot will be found a very useful and convenient 
article ; or, the orts may be used for litter. 

And the necessary condiments should be provided for 
them at all times, so as to ensure perfect digestion. 

EXERCISE. 

In a state of nature, graminivorous animals are continu- 
ally moving from place to place, in order to procure suste- 
nance. This exercise is indispensable to perfect digestion, 
health and vigor ; and is more especially necessary to young 
animals, in order to the proper growth and developement 
of muscle and bone. Hence, close confinement, for any 
great length of time will be, in some measure, injurious 
to stock sheep. In winter, when there is much snow on 
the ground, necessity compels the domesticated sheep to 
remain quiet. But in climates where the ground is bare 
or partly bare, at intervals during the winter, it will be very 
economical, and will contribute greatly to the strength of 
the flock, if they can have an extensive range upon hilly 
pastures, which have been permitted to grow up during 
autumn, or upon rye fields which have been sown early. 
They will thus obtain the necessary exercise. In such 
case, they will need some grain daily, in order to keep 
them in good flesh ; but much hay will be saved. At the 
same time, the necessary condiments should be carefully 
provided for them, as they are very liable to diarrhoSa and 
braxy, when feeding on such pastures in winter. 

Fields of blue grass will be very useful to those who 
adopt this course of management ; blue grass being less 
liable to injury by frost than most other grasses. 

For lambs, short pasture, with plenty of hay and grain, 
will be more beneficial ; and if the land be rich, and the 
climate or soil is moist, very short pasture, with a good 
supply of hay, &c, will be preferable for every division 
of the flock, until the grasses, are well sprouted in spring. 



244 SPRING MANAGEMENT. 

SECTION XXXVII. 

SPRING MANAGEMENT. 

In spring, sheep of every kind which have been winter- 
ed mostly on hay, or other dry fodder, should, if possible, 
be induced to continue on eating a portion of such fodder 
daily, until the grasses are well" started, so as to afford a 
full supply of food. Dry fodder, at this time of the year, 
helps to prevent indigestion and diarrhoea ; but as they do 
not willingly eat much of it at this time of the year, if any 
grass can be obtained, they may be induced to relish it by 
sprinkling such dry hay, or other fodder, occasionally with, 
weak brine. And in order to keep up their strength, when 
first beginning to feed on such young grasses, it will 
be well to continue feeding grain moderately, for a short 
time after they have discontinued eating hay. 

Before they are sent off to their summer pastures, all 
such as have much filth adhering to their hind parts should 
be lagged, especially coarse wooled sheep, in order to pre- 
vent the deposition of fly blows, whereby sheep are some- 
times much injured or destroyed. Breeding ewes, which 
are heavy with lamb at this period, should be managed 
with caution in handling them ; otherwise abortion might 
follow. For this purpose let them stand upright upon the 
legs, and be held by one person, while another clips off all 
the wool and filth which it may be necessary to dislodge. 
But no wool should be pulled or clipped from the udder of 
the ewes at this time ; if the udder be partially or wholly 
denuded before lambing, it will have a strong tendency 
to produce garget, and endangers the life of the ewe. If 
the ewes be properly tagged at this time, the lamber will 
more readily see the stain of blood on the parts behind, 
which, and which only, will sometimes tell him when the 
ewe has yeaned ; for it is no uncommon thing for a young 
ewe to desert her lamb, and be found grazing unconcern- 
edly with the rest of the flock, as if nothing had happened. 

Also, the male part of the flock should be examined, 
and, if necessary, the wool should be cut off for two or 
three inches around the extremity of the sheath, whenever 
the wool appears to be constantly saturated with urine, so 



SPRING MANAGEMENT. 245 

that there will be danger of its producing soreness or ulcer- 
ation. 

As the ground is usually wet at this season of the year, 
their hoofs will be softer than at most other times ; and this 
opportunity should be improved for cutting and paring 
them. In this operation, breeding ewes should be handled 
carefully ; and their hoofs should be attended to three or 
four weeks before parturition. 

THE LAMBING SEASON. 

In breeding for improvement, a number should be plac- 
ed upon each ewe with paint, about a month before the 
time of parturition. Shortly after each lamb is dropped, 
the number of its dam should be put upon the lamb. In 
this manner, by reference to the breeding register, the ne- 
cessary selections of lambs for breeders may be made, with 
reference to their progenitors. 

The average period of gestation of the ewe is stated 
to be 152 days. T. E. Pawlet states, in the Lon- 
don Farmers' Magazine, that he found, by observations 
carefully made, that the times his ewes went with lamb 
were as follows : 

Weeks. Dayt. 

The longest time any ewe went with a ram 

lamb was, 22 4 

The shortest, do do do do 21 4 

The longest time that any one went with a ewe 

lamb was, - - - 22 2 

The shortest, do do do do 20 4 

From these experiments, it would seem that the sheep 
(and, perhaps, all other animals) go longer with males than 
with females ; though the difference is trifling. 

The proper time for parturition must be determined by 
climate, locality, and the purposes for which the flock is 
principally reared. 

During the latter part of the time of gestation, more par- 
ticular attention should be paid to the ewes. If it is intend- 
ed that the lambs shall drop in March or April, or at any 
time of the winter or spring, before grass grows, in order 
to raise early lambs for market, or other purposes, the ewes 
should be fed, for a week or two before lambing, with suc- 
culent food, or wheaten shorts, or barley ground or boiled, 



246 SPRING MANAGEMENT. 

or should have a chance to feed upon early sowed rye, and 
have, at the same time, a little grain daily. If the lambs 
are to drop after the grass is well started in spring, a mod- 
erate portion of grain, with a little hay, daily, will be suf- 
ficient for them. 

As to quantity of feed, a middle course should be pursu- 
ed, in order to enable the ewe to produce the lamb with 
comparative safety. Too high feeding disposes to fever. 
On the other hand, with too poor keep, the ewe will not 
have strength to go ihrough with the process of lambing 
safely, nor will she have milk enough for the lamb. If the 
dam has not previously had sufficient support, the lamb 
will be weakly when it is dropped, and will not thrive as 
well afterwards. 

When the time of yeaning approaches, suitable care may 
prevent considerable losses. The ewes should be placed 
in a smooth, dry, nearly level, grassy field, which is as free 
as possible from ditches and hollows, or in well littered 
yards, near good shelters, as, even if the lambs are drop- 
ped late in the season, it will sometimes be necessary to 
pen some ewes by themselves ; and in case of cold rains 
or extreme cold weather, all should be under shelter, espe- 
cially at night. 

If the lambs are to be dropped early in the season, be- 
fore grass appears, and while the weather is rather cold, 
the ewes should be kepi, at this season, principally in 
yards near their shelters, or in small pasture fields; but 
they shoula not be too much confined, as moderate exer- 
cise is essenu.il to breeding ewes. 

For ten days or a fortnight before the time of yeaning 
approaches, the ewes should be visited often during the 
daytime, lesc some of them should be cast, and being una- 
ble to rise, should suffer abortion, or should continue to 
struggle occasionally, until death overtakes them by ex- 
haustion and suffocation. 

As storms appear to accelerate the birth of lambs, the 
sheep-fold .should be frequently visited at such times, after 
the ewes begin to yean. 
i As oftentimes some ewes will drop their lambs before the 
average time of lambing is completed, the attention of the 
shepherd should be increased as the time of parturition ap- 
proaches ; and after it has commenced, he should carefully 



SPRING MANAGEMENT. 247 

observe every ewe that appears to be in labor, in order to 
render assistance, if necessary ; but, at the same time, the 
operations of nature should not be hastily interfered with. 
In case of difficult parturition, the following observations, 
from an essay by Mr. Cleve, in the first volume of the 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, will 
be found useful, and worthy of particular attention : 

" The shepherd must not be led by the appearance of 
uneasiness and pain to interfere prematurely ; he must 
watch the ewe closely, and so long as she rises at his ap- 
proach, he may rest assured that whatever uneasiness she 
may exhibit, all is well. Much uneasiness is generally 
apparent; she will repeatedly lie down, and rise again with 
seeming distress. If this occurs when driving her to the 
fold, he must be very cautious in urging her. These symp- 
toms ought to be continued for two or three hours, or even 
more, before he feels imperatively called on to interfere, 
except the lamb is in such a position as to warrant fears of 
losing it. In cold weather particularly, the labor is likely 
to be protracted. Should the ewe appear exhausted, and 
gradually sinking under labor, it will be right to give her 
some oatmeal gruel, with a little linseed, in the proportion 
of a spoonful of the latter to two of the former. When the 
ewe feels that she is unable of herself to expel the lamb, 
she will quietly submit to the shepherd's assistance. In 
giving her this assistance, his first duty is, to ascertain 
whether the presentation is natural. The natural presenta- 
tion is, with the muzzle foremost, and a foot on each side of 
it. Should all be right in this respect, he must. proceed to 
disengage the lamb, first very gently drawing down the 
legs, and with all possible tenderness smoothing and facili- 
tating the passing of the head with his fingers, rather than 
forcibly extricating it, the particular attention of the shep- 
herd being given to these points. This may be effected by 
passing the linger up the rectum, until he feels the back of 
the lamb's head, and then urging it forwards, at the same 
time that he gently pulls the legs. Sometimes the head is 
sufficiently advanced, but the legs are too backward. In 
this case, the head, must be gently pushed back, and the 
hand being well oiled, must be introduced into the vagina, 
and applied to the legs, so "as to place them in their natural 
position, equal with the head. Should the fore feet, on the 



248 SPRING MANAGEMENT. 

other hand, protrude, they must in like manner be return- 
ed, and the same assistance given to the head. If the 
hinder quarters present themselves first, the hand must be 
applied to get hold of both hind legs together, and draw 
them gently but firmly ; the lamb may often be easily re- 
moved in this position. 

It is no uncommon occurrence to find the head of the 
lamb protruding and much swollen; but still, by patience 
and gentle manipulation, it may often be gradually brought 
forward ; or even nature will complete the work, if the 
pelvis is not very much deformed. Should, however, the 
strength of the mother be rapidly wasting, the head may be 
taken away; and then, the operator, pushing back the 
lamb, may introduce his hand, and laying hold of the fore 
legs, effect the delivery. 

It also often happens that the legs are thrust out to the 
shoulder, and from the throes of the ewe, it is not possible 
to replace them, so as to get up the head of the lamb. By 
partially skinning the legs, you may disunite them from 
the shoulder joint ; there will then be room for the intro- 
duction of the hand, and by laying hold of the head you 
can deliver the ewe. 

A single season of practice, will do more than volumes 
of writing, to prepare the farmer for the preceeding, and 
some other cases of difficult labor. But let him bear in 
mind, that, as a general rule, the foetus should, if possible, 
be placed in its natural position, previous to any attempt to 
extricate it by force. When force must be used, it should 
be as gentle as is consistent with the object of delivery. I 
need scarcely observe, that the ewe must be the object of 
careful nursing and management, until she is completely 
restored." 

In addition, it may be observed that, sometimes, the lamb 
dies within the uterus before parturition, and in such cases 
there is very apt to be a wrong presentation, the breech 
frequently coming foremost ; but in such, or other wrong 
presentation, the ewe may often be saved by* introducing 
the hana into the vagina, or even into the uterus, and push- 
ing back the lamb and turning it so as t to bring the hind 
legs, or the head and fore legs, foremost, and then gently 
extracting it. • 

In such cases, or any other, if the lamb is dropped alive, 



SPRING MANAGEMENT. 249 

so much wool, and only so much, should be pulled or 
shorn from around the teats, that the lamb can conveniently 
suck. It should then be placed before the ewe, and the 
ewe, by its scent, willgeneralty know it and own it. But 
as she is apt to be frightened, in some measure, by such 
intervention, so as to run off and leave the lamb, the surest 
way is, to place the ewe, along with her lamb, in some' 
small enclosure, or division of a shed or barn. Shoulckthe 
ewe, under such circumstances, or any other, refuse to 
suckle the lamb, she should be held, and the teat should be 
placed in the mouth of the lamb. If she has plenty of milk, 
she Will seldom refuse to suckle the lamb. The sooner the 
lamb can suck after it is dropped, the better ; the milk gives 
strength to the lamb immediately. 

The lower end of the teats of the ewe are filled with 
gluey inspissated milk before the lamb is yeaned, and, con- 
sequently, it is with difficulty sometimes that weak lambs 
can draw any milk from the teats : and, therefore, it is well, 
in most cases, to draw a little milk by hand From each teat, 
when the lamb is first yeaned. 

After the lamb has sucked, the ewe will generally own 
it. If, however, she does not, a little fine salt rubbed on 
its head and back, will help on this purpose ; and, if neces- 
sary, the ewe may be confined for a {ew days alone with 
: her lamb, and held three or four times a day, or tied up so 
that the lamb can suck. With such care, the ewe will 
rarely refuse to own the lamb after a short period. 

Sometimes an ewe, after having dropped a good lamb, 
will leave it, and run off to pasture. Such ewes should be 
looked up and placed with their lambs. Perhaps the ewe 
will show her affection for the lamb when her udder begins 
to be distended with milk. When the ewe is separated 
from her lamb in this manner, care should be used not to 
have the lamb wrapped or touched by any thing which is 
offensive, as the scent of the lamb is the principal source of 
recognition by the dam. Ewes, which have dropped their 
lambs over night,, should be examined in the morning, and 
see that their lambs just dropped are capable of sucking, 
which may generally be known by the distention of the 
lamb's belly, or by the appearance of the ewe's teats. 

The ewe may give too little milk, when her lamb is 
first dropped early in spring. In such case, it pays well to 



250 SPRING MANAGEMENT. 

aid the lamb by milk fed from a bottle ; or another ewe 
may be compelled to suckle the lamb, until its dam affords 
a full supply of milk. This care will prevent the lamb 
from being stunted. The milk from a new milch cow, or 
cream warmed, should be fed to the lamb. Milk from a 
farrow cow is not suitable to feed to young lambs when 
they are first dropped; it is not sufficiently oily and purga- 
tive. 

In such cases, the milk of the ewes may be greatly in- 
creased, in a short lime, by feeding them with apples, pota- 
toes, bran, or barley mashes, &c. 

If lambs become chilled soon after they are first dropped, 
they may, in many cases, be resuscitated by placing them 
in warm water, and then rubbing them until they become 
dry ; or simply, by wrapping them in a warm blanket, and 
placing them in a warm room, but not too near the fire. — 
In such cases, give the lamb no milk until it calls for it, 
and then it should be fed with warm milk, moderately at 
first. 

It sometimes happens that an ewe, with an abundance of 
milk, loses her lamb. In such case, it may be profitable to 
provide her with another, which does not get plenty of 
milk. To affect this, place the skin of her dead lamb on 
the body of the live one, and she will generally own it. 
The skin need not remain on more than a day or two. 

If no lambs are provided for ewes which lose their lambs, 
it may be well to see that they are milked a few times at 
intervals, in some eases in order to prevent garget. 

The young lambs of fine-wooled sheep are very sensitive 
to cold and moisture, and, therefore, in order to prevent 
undue exposure of them, it is necessary to anticipate 
storms, and place the ewes and lambs under shelter. Storms 
appear to aecolcrate the birth of lambs, therefore, the ewes, 
which have not yeaned, should be put under shelter at such 
times, lest some lambs should be lost for want thereof, and 
the necessary attention. 

As fast as the lambs are dropped, it will be well to keep 
what are dropped each twemy-four hours, in pens or yards 
by themselves for a day or two, until each lamb has learn- 
ed to know its mother, or each mother owns its lamb ; and 
then it will be convenient to turn all such ewes and lambs 
into a flock by themselves, separate and apart from those 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 251 

which are yet to yean ; the young lambs which are lately 
dropped by the remaining ewes, may then be readily dis- 
cerned and attended to. For this purpose, it will be very 
convenient to have two or more lots adjacent to shelters, 
where the ewes and lambs may be kept until all the lambs 
are yeaned, and until the lambs are large enough to be cas- 
trated ; after which operation, as hereafter mentioned, they 
may soon be placed in their summer pastures. 

During the time of yeaning, their pasture should be nei- 
ther very luxuriant nor very poor ; but when this is past, 
they may be put into better pastures, which should be dry 
and free from undue exposure : and all necessary condi- 
ments should be provided for them in every pasture, lest 
some should become diseased. 



SECTION XXXVIII. 

SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

WASHING. 

A day or two previous to the washing of sheep, they 
should all be tagged in the nicest manner, by shearing all 
tag-locks from their hinder parts, and all burs, which are 
visible, should be cut off or picked off. The washing and 
shearing may then be performed with much more ease and 
cleanliness than if tagging is neglected at this time. , 

The time for washing will depend upon the latitude and 
the season; but as soon as settled warm weather comes on 
in spring, it may be done with propriety. Coarse-wooled 
sheep, in latitute 41 or 42, should be washed in May, be- 
fore their wool begins to shed ; Merinos may, with more 
propriety, be washed in the last of May, or early in June, 
Fair and warm weather should be improved for this pur- 
pose, and the water should be comparatively warm. If pos- 
sible, they should all be washed in the fore part of the day. 
If the washing is finished a few hours before sunset, they 
will become partially dry before the chilly air of night 
comes on, and, of course, will be less affected by it. 



252 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

The mast convenient place for washing, is in a stream 
of clear water, with a gravelly or stony bottom, and suffi- 
ciently large to carry otf the filth ; or a small stream may 
be darned, or may be turned into a vat so as to answer 
this purpose. 

The sheep should be taken into the water, and keeping 
the head sufficiently elevated, the washing should be per- 
formed by squeezing portions of the fleece between the 
hands, until the water flowing from it will not be colored 
by the dirt. Then, if convenient, the sheep may be taken 
to some higher and purer part of the stream, and rinsed. — 
When the sheep is taken out of the water, if it is a weak 
sheep, or if the fleece is so filled with water that it cannot 
stand, it should be supported until the fleece is drained, s< 
that it may not fall upon the sand or mud. 

During the process of washing, it should be borne in mind, 
that the sheep is taken into an element for which it feeh 
\ the greatest abhorrence, and which it ever avoids as far as 
possible, except to quench its thirst ; and, therefore, ii 
should be kept in the water no longer than is necessary foi 
clean washing, and should be handled and treated as kindl) 
as is consistent with perfect cleansing. In putting the 
sheep into the water, the arms and hands should be applied 
round the neck or body, or to the hind leg ; and the sheep 
should never be lifted up or tossed about merely by clinch- 
ing the wool, nor be thrown violently into the water, so as 
to injure it by contusion, as is frequently done in sport. 

The above method of washing sheep will render the 
wool sufficiently clean to be lair, merchantable wool. But 
if it is desirable to make the wool extra clean, the sheep 
should be washed immediately after a rain, by which their 
wool has been well soaked ; or they should be taken to the 
washing pen, and each sheep should be dipped into the wa- 
ter, or all may be thoroughly sprinkled with a watering- 
pot ; and then, after being wet in either of these modes, 
they should be allowed to huddle together for an hour or 
more before they are washed. This method is more par- 
ticularly necessary in washing Merinos. 

After washing, they should be kept, till sheared, in clean, 
grassy pastures, which are free from burs, thistles, and half- 
charred wood. 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 253 

SHEARING. 4 

Shearing may, with propriety, be commenced in about' 
five or six days after washing, if the weather has been fair, 
so as to fully dry the fleece ; otherwise, a longer time may 
be necessary for that purpose. r _The yolk, in that time, 
will be started into the fleece, so as to soften the wool, and 
preserve it from moths after it is packed away. 

A small flock only should be taken to the shearing place 
at any one time; that is, only about so many as can &. 
sheared each half day. A clean, smooth floor is the most 
convenient place for shearing— either on a common barri-y 
floor, or a floor of plank, made temporarily in a sheep-barft 
or shed. 

In shearing, as well as at all other times, the same cau- 
tion should be used in handling sheep as in washing. 

Shearers differ somewhat as to the minutice of shearing; 
but the principal points to be attended to, are, to cut the 
wool with one clip of the shears, : and not in twain, as per- 
sons shearing too fast are apt to dbj: and to shear it even and 
close, without cutting any part M the skin; and special 
care should be used not to cut the udder, or teats, or any 
delicate part of either sex ; and if a wound is made by the 
shears, a little tar and grease mixed, or a little powdered 
charcoal, should be applied to the wound, in order to heal 
a, and keep off* flies. The v shearer should hold the sheep 
in positions which will be easy for it, and should be permit- 
ted to shear no faster, nor greater number in a day, than 
what he can shear in a workmanlike manner. 

A common mode of shearing, and, perhaps, as convenient 
as any, is as follows : 

Having first well swept the shearing floor, the shearer 
catches the ysheep, and removes all straws and burs from 
the fleece, and filth from about the tail, with shears, if ne- 
cessary ; he then places the sheep on the floor, and rest- 
ing upon its rump, with the head upwards, and with its back 
and neck resting against the legs of the shearer. The 
shearer first shears the wool from around the head and neck, 
making short clips, with the shears close to the skin, and 
bending the neck from side to side, as may be found con- 
venient : he then clips the wool from the fore legs, brisket, 
*nd belly, as far down as he can reach while standing 
ta this position ; he next lays the sheep down upon its side, 



254 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

and shears off all the wool upon one side, from the belly to 
the back ; he then turns the sheep over upon the other 
side, in such a manner as not to tear the fleece, and clips 
the wool in like manner from the other side ; after which, 
he places the sheep upon its legs, on another part of the 
floor, and trims off the leg-wool, which is kept by itself. 

ROLLING THE FLEECES. 

The fleece (without the leg- wool,) should be placed with 
shorn side downward upon the floor, and then, if any tag- 
locks remain, they should be carefully removed ; the fleece 
should then be made as compact as possible, by pushing the 
wool from each side towards the centre ; the loose good 
wool is then thrown upon the fleece ; next, the shearer 
folds each side of the fleece towards the centre, so that (if 
the wool be fine,) it will not exceed eight or ten inches in 
width ; the head and neck portions of the fleece should 
then be turned back upon the fleece, as far as the part 
shorn from the shoulders, and then, beginning at the tail 
end of the fleece, roll it up as tighi as possible. 

Next, wind some twine around it, and tie it; crossing 
the twine in different directions, and passing it only so ma- 
ny times around the fleece as will be sufficient to render it 
compact. Small, smooth twine should be used for this pur- 
pose, and no other. This method presents as good wool 
as grows upon the sheep, and if all is done right, it will ap- 
pear desirable. The wool, when shorn, should be remo- 
ved to a cool, clean, dry, dark room, where it will be en- 
tirely unexposed to dust or dirt of any kind, until it is sold, 
or packed in sacks. Exposure to light for a few days will 
give it a yellow hue. — (A. Agriculturist for 1846, pa, 93.) 

After sheep are shorn, they should be housed for two or 
three successive nights, and at any time for several days 
afterwards, should cold or stormy weather ensue. The 
neglect of this precaution frequently causes great suffer- 
ings and losses in flocks; and the humane flock-master 
will not forget this part of his duty. 

BALEING OF WOOL. 

The kind of linen cloth which is generally used in the 
United States for baleing wool, is termed burlaps, and is 
generally from 36 to 40 inches in width. Cotton cloth 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 255 

will not answer for this purpose, unless the wool is very 
clean, as the yolk of wool soon causes it to decay. 

The quantity of burlaps which is necessary for an ordi- 
nary sized sack, is five yards. A hoop of wood or iron 
wire is generally used, around which the edges of the 
mouth of the sack are folded, and sewed with packing twine. 
The hoop and sack are then placed on the inside of a 
square frame, which is just large enough for the hoop to 
rest upon its four sides, and at an elevation sufficient for the 
sack to swing clear from anything below. If the wool is 
fine, five or six fleeces are thrown in for a layer, and are 
followed by a man or boy, who carefully adjusts and treads 
each successive layer, till the sack is full. It is well, be- 
fore the packing begins, to stuff the lower corners of the 
sacks with wool clippings, and lie them. When the sack 
is filled, it is then drawn together with twine, and the up- 
per corners are then prepared in the same manner as the 
lower corners, in order to form handles for moving the 
bales. 

SORTING, MARKING, ETC. 

During and after the process of shearing is the most con- 
venient time for the sorting and brand-marking of sheep. — 
The quality and weight of each fleece may, at this time, 
be fully ascertained, and the form and every imperfection 
of carcass may be clearly seen. 

At this time, therefore, should be selected out for breed- 
ers, all those, of either sex, which are most distinguished 
for the several purposes for which they are reared, whether 
for quality or quantity of wool, or the excellence and fair 
proportions of their forms. Such should receive a lasting 
mark, and the weight and quality of their fleeces should be 
duly noted. At this time should be sorted out the wethers 
and dry ewes, particularly those which are old ?4 pr diseased, 
or inferior in size, and a which are designed to be fattened 
off for the butcher. 

Ewes and lambs should be pastured in flocks by them- 
selves, and separate and apart from all other kinds. 

Rams and wethers may herd together; and yearling 
ewes and barren ewes in flocks together. 

At this time, each sheep should receive a mark or brand 
on some part of the body, with a paint brush or brand, of 



256 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

the initial letters of the owner's name, or some other suit- 
able mark, so that it may be seen at a distance, in case any 
should stray or get mixed with other sheep. 

The materials most suitable for marking, are spirits of 
turpentine, or linseed oil, or both ihese articles, mixed with 
lampblack, or Venetian red, or Spanish brown. The 
marks may be placed on different parts of the body, so that 
each kind may be readily known. 

Tar is frequently -used for brand-marking ; but it forms 
a deep, heavy crust upon the wool which cannot be easily 
cleansed from it, and, therefore, is injurious in its manu- 
facture. 

If the skins of any are found to be in bad condition, the 
proper remedies may now be conveniently applied. Wash- 
ing them with salt water will have a good effect upon their 
skins — will prevent their taking cold, and will cause ticks 
to drop off. — (Cultivator, 1845.) 

At this time, also, attention should be paid to the horns 
of sheep : if any press too near the bones of the head or 
face, or endanger the eyes, they should be cut partly or 
wholly off, as may be necessary. The feet, also, should 
be examined and pared, if necessary. 

Also, the teeth of old sheep should be examined, and if 
any are found to be loose, or in any wise defective, so as 
to be useless, they should be extracted with pincers. 

OF PASTTJEAGE. 

The natural habits of the sheep attach it to the highest 
grounds, to the upland slopes where aromatic plants abound* 
Nature never intended this animal to consume continually 
the succulent grasses of rich lowlands ; and all, who have 
observed the habits of the sheep, are aware that tlieir natu- 
ral instinct, after being domesticated for ages, still leads 
them to the elevated portions of the fields in which they 
are kept. 

For this reason, the highest hills of every farm on which 
sheep are kept, will always be best adapted for their pastur- 
age, provided the soil be dry, and the quantity and quality 
of the herbage be suitable for them, and provided, also, 
that the breed be adapted to the climate. 

Either uplands or lowlands, which contain much vege- 
table matter, and which are, at the same time, so moist as 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 257 

to be mucky, will be objectionable on account of their pro- 
ducing foot rot. 

On the other hand, soils which are composed almost en- 
tirely of sand, will not have consistence sufficient to fur- 
nish a regular supply of pasture. 

The best pasturage lands for sheep, are those which are 
firm to their feet, and which have such a mixture of ingre- 
dients that herbage may flourish, and, at the same time, 
will suffer least by drought or wet weather. 

As the highlands, in which the sheep naturally delights, 
are generally the thinnest and poorest soils, it becomes ne- 
cessary for the sheep, in a state of nature, to take a large 
range of pasturage, in order to obtain the quantity and va- 
riet)' of herbage which is necessary for its welfare. Hence, 
on prairies and other large unenclosed lands, breeds of 
sheep which are suitable for such situations, are accommo- 
dated with all the variety of food which is necessary for 
them. But when they are confined by enclosures, it is ever 
good policy to divide these enclosures into as many conve- 
nient sized lots as will be sufficient, in order to gratify their 
appetites by frequent changes of pasture. A frequent 
change of pasture, says Blacklock,is the soul of sheep hus- 
bandry. 

Grass lands, in small divisions, will keep or fatten 
more sheep than if there are few or no divisions. They 
can then be fed off at regular intervals, when the grass has 
attained the proper height. In an enclosed country, 
sheep generally do best when they are separated into small 
parcels ; they feed more quietly, and they waste less. 

Short sweet pasture is most relished by sheep, and is 
most healthy for them ; and a sufficient number should be 
kept on the grounds on which they are depastured, so that 
the pasture may be kept at its proper height ; and if, at any 
time, the grasses become too high and rank for sheep, they 
should be fed off occasionally by horses or cattle. 

On the other hand, it is very unprofitable and inhumane 
oolicy to overstock lands with sheep, or other animals. By 
Dverstocking, all the flock is impoverished and liable to dis- 
3ase, whereby they produce no more wool than a less num- 
)er with proper rations of food ; not to speak of mutton, 
which, in such case, is entirely out of the question. 

Fallow fields and stubble fields are the beet of pasture for 



258 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

sheep, on account of the large quantity of bitter, astringent, 
and diuretic weeds which spring up in them. But they 
should never be permitted to run upon new stubble fields of 
bearded grains, such as bearded wheat, rye, or barley ; as 
the beards of such grains frequently produce braxy and 
death to them. Hogs or cattle should always precede 
sheep in such fields, or the sheep should be kept out of 
such fields until the beards of such grains are rotted enough 
to make them tender; they will then be harmless. Sheep 
may be turned into other stubble fields without harm to 
them, provided there be not so much grain left in them as 
to injure them by its large quantity. 

When convenient, they should be allowed to range oc- 
casionally, on dry, open, wood lands, or bushy pastures, so 
as to browse upon their leaves and shoots, which are much 
relished by them, and are healthy for them. But after 
acorns begin to drop freely, on oak lands, they should no 
longer range on such lands ; acorns, in large quantities, 
being very injurious to them. 

They should not be long confined at any one time, to 
thickly shaded pastures, the herbage of such pastures 
being much less nutritious and wholesome, that that of 
open lands. 

They should be frequently changed from field to field, 
unless they have a large range ; but, when possible, they 
should never be changed from very short pasture, to that 
which is very luxuriant, or the reverse ; and, especially, 
they should not be turned in upon rank clover pastures, 
when they were wet with dew or rain, lest some be hoven. 

They should never be permitted to run very long at 
one time, on low, moist lands, particularly in summer. 
But if a farm contains a considerable proportion of such 
lands, particular care should be used to select a breed 
which is suitable for it. 

Mornings and evenings are the best times for change of 
pasture. At such time, the flock will generally all be up 
and feeding, and may readily be discerned. 

SHADE TREES. 

All domesticated quadrupeds suffer from exposure to the 
extremes of heat, especially the sheep. Hence, in sum- 
mer, the sheep is very apt to stand or lie during the warm- 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 259 

est part of the day, upon the cool ground, in the most airy 
or shady places. Shade trees contribute greatly to their 
comfort, and blisters, and permanent injury to the skin, are 
sometimes produced by undue exposure to the sun, imme- 
diately after being shorn. 

Hence the considerate farmer will ever encourage the 
growth of a sufficient nnmber of shade trees in his pas- 
tures, and in airy places, and, if possible, where they will 
least interfere with ploughing. If all trees have been cut 
from pasture fields, such useful shade trees, as are natural 
to the soil, may be planted, and will soon form the neces- 
sary shades. And if a choice can be made, it will be well 
to cultivate in plough fields, such kinds as strike their roots 
deep into the ground, and will least interfere with the 
plough; such as the oak, &c. 

WATER. 

Water is not so absolutely necessary to sheep in summer 
time, as to most other graminivorous animals, as their prin- 
cipal feeding is done mornings and evenings, when the 
dew is on the grass. But there are times in April, and also 
in the latter part of summer, when the ground is frequen t- 
ly much parched by the sun, and but little dew falls. At 
such times, sheep of all kinds, but more especially ewes 
which suckle lambs, suffer, if water is withheld from 
them ; and, at such times, all should, if possible, be grat- 
ified with it. If only a part of the pastures upon a farm 
are supplied with water, these should be allotted to the 
ewes and lambs at such times, so that there may be no 
failure of milk. 

WEANING LAMBS. 

The time for weaning lambs will depend upon the time 
of parturition, the breed cultivated, and upon the disposi- 
tion which is to be- afterwards made of the lambs. 

The time usually allowed for the lambs of fine wooled 
sheep to suck, is about four months. In Europe, the time 
allowed for the lambs of coarse-wooled sheep to suck, is 
generally about three and a half months ; unless it is in- 
tended to fatten them off for the butcher ; in such case, a 
• longer time is sometimes allowed for them to be suckled 
by the ewe. Such sheep grow faster, and come to maturi- 



260 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 

ty more rapidly than fine- woo] ed sheep, and, therefore, 
their lambs may be sooner weaned. 

If lambs are weaned at the usual times, they will gen- 
erally, after a short period, do better than to run longer 
with the ewes. After the ewes have given milk three and 
a half or four months, the quality of their milk becomes 
inferior, and the lambs are better off without it than with 
it. They then depend entirely upon grass and feed free- 
ly. Consequently, if coarse-wool ed lambs have been drop- 
ped in the latter part of April, or fore part of May, they 
should be weaned by the 15th or 20th of August ; and fine- 
wooled lambs, dropped at the same times, should be wean- 
ed as eany as from the first to the 10th of September. As 
early as this will be necessary, in order that the ewes may 
thrive, and be in good condition, for renewed gestation, 
and the endurance of winter. 

When the lambs are first weaned, the ewe lambs should 
be put by themselves, along with a few old barren ewes, 
and the ram lambs by themselves, with a few wethers ; 
they will, in such case, be much more quiet, than if apart 
from any old sheep, and will more readily submit to be 
driven from field to field, in changes of pasture. 

The dams and their offspring should be removed as far 
apart as is convenient, at any rate, so far that they cannot 
hear the bleating of each other; otherwise, their inqui- 
etude will be prolonged so as to be injurious to both of 
them. 

The lambs should be placed in better pasture than before 
they were weaned, in order to compensate for the loss of 
their mother's milk; but not into that which is very luxu- 
riant, as they are more liable to braxy in such pastures 
than older sheep ; and the necessary condiments should be 
carefully provided for them at this time, lest disease should 
ensue ; and if the farm is apt to produce rot, the driest pas- 
tures should be allotted to the lambs. 

A contrary course should be adopted with the ewes, as 
to their pasture, for at least two weeks. For that time, it 
can hardly be too short : otherwise, it will frequently 
produce a great extension and inflammation of their udders. 
And those who wish to save the udders of their ewes, so 
that all may be fit for breeding, should also take them to' 
their stalls, and thoroughly milk each ewe, on the third 



FATTENING. 26'1 

day after the lambs are weaned. In some cases, it will be 
necessary to repeat this operation twice or three times, at 
intervals of three or four days, in order to prevent inflam* 
mation of the ndder with certainty. 

As soon as any or all of them are dried up, such one?* 
should be immediately put into first-rate pasture, and 
should continue in such pastures until winter. If any of 
them are much thinner in flesh than others, they may 
be placed by themselves, and a little grain may be fed to 
them daily until they are recruited, so as to join the rest of 
the flock. 



SECTION XXXIX, 

FATTENING. 

Whether sheep are to be fattened in summer or in win- 
ter, it is ever desirable that they should have been well 
kept for some considerable time before rapid fattening is at- 
tempted. Their digestive organs will then be strong, and 
able to bear full feeding. Therefore, if any are quite thin 
in flesh, they should, at first, not be put into too rank pas- 
tures in summer, and in winter should not receive too 
much grain in beginning to feed them, lest they should be 
cloyed, in some measure, or should become diseased in 
consequence of excess of nutriment. 

With these precautions, if it is intended to fatten them 
for the butcher, it is always an object to fatten them as fast 
as possible, if we wish to obtain the greatest quantity of 
flesh and fat, according to the amount of food consumed ; 
for, regular daily rations of food are necessary to support 
life, and supply the natural waste of the body ; and the 
sooner the flesh and fat accumulate to the desired quantity, 
the sooner, also, will this daily waste be brought to a close. 

Therefore, in summer, the pasturage should be amply 
sufficient, so that they may be as quiet as they please, and 
not be allowed to range over too large a surface, in order 
to fill themselves. And most special care should be used 



262 FATTENING. 

that they are frequently moved from field to field, or that 
a large range be provided for them, and all necessary con- 
diments. 

The digestive powers of young animals being weaker 
than those of animals which have arrived at maturity, such 
young animals should be fed more cautiously ; and it takes 
a longer time to fatten them, as a portion of their nutriment 
is appropriated to the development of muscle or flesh. 

In summer and fall, sheep may be fattened off most rap- 
idly, and with least expense : good pasture and frequent 
changes of it, with suitable condiments, being sufficient for 
that purpose. 

But it is sometimes an object to fatten them very rapidly 
in summer, and, also, to fatten off old sheep which cannot 
readily be fattened on mere pasture alone. In either case, 
the feeding of a moderate quantity of grain daily, will gen- 
erally effect it very advantageously. One bushel of grain 
fed in summer, will make as much fat as three or four fed 
in winter. 

An experiment was made at Shrewsbury, in England, in 
fattening three sheep on peas, allowing them, at the same 
time, to run in pasture. They gained 39 lbs. in 21 days, 
being an average of nearly 10 ounces each per day. — (A. 
Agriculturist, 1843.) 

If the first quality of mutton is desired, sheep of the 
smaller breeds, and those which do not soonest come to ma- 
turity, should be selected for that purpose, and a large pro- 
portion of upland pasture should be provided for them. For 
though the quality of the mutton depends very much upon 
the breed of the sheep, the qualities of the food upon which 
they are fattened have also a powerful influence in deter- 
mining the qualities of the mutton. 

In fattening sheep to the best advantage in winter, it is 
necessary that they should have good shelters, and that 
these shelters should be often supplied with fresh litter, so 
as to make them quiet and comfortable ; and, also, that 
proper allowances of food, water, and condiments should be 
regularly supplied to them. 

The observations of Mr. Spooner will illustrate this sub- 
ject as follows: " Quietude and warmth contribute greatly 
to the fattening process. This is a fact which has not only 
been developed by science, but proved by actual practice, 



FATTENING. 263 

The manner in which these agents operate, is simple, and 
easily explained. Motion increases respiration, and the 
excess of oxygen thus taken, requires an increased quantity 
of carbon, which would otherwise be expended in produ- 
cing fat. So, likewise, cold robs the system of animal 
heat; to supply which, more oxygen and more carbon must 
be employed in extra combustion, to restore the diminution 
of temperature. Nature enforces the restoration of warmth, 
by causing cold to produce both hunger and a disposition 
for motion, supplying carbon by the gratification of the for- 
mer, and oxygen by the indulgence of the latter. The 
above facts are illustrated by Lord Ducie : 

" One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 
lb. of Swedish turnips each, per day ; whilst another hun- 
dred, in the open air, ate 25 lb. each, and at the end of a 
certain period, the former animals weighed each 30 lbs. 
more than the latter ; plainly showing that, to a certain ex- 
tent, warmth is a substitute for food. This was also prov- 
ed, by the same nobleman, in other experiments, which 
also illustrated the effect of exercise. 

No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, between 
the 21st of November, and the 1st of December. They 
consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, the temperature being 
44 deg ; at the end of this time, they weighed % lbs, less, 
than when first exposed. 

No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shelter, and al- 
lowed to run at a temperature of 49 deg. ; they consumed 
at first 82 lbs. then 70 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 
23 pounds. 

No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same shed, but 
not allowed any exercise ; they ate at first 64 lbs., then 58 
lbs., and increased in weight 30 lbs. 

No. 4. Five sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and 
covered ; they ate 35 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 
8 lbs." 

A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P. 
He states, that 80 Leicester sheep, in the open field, con- 
sumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil cake. 
On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able to 
consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being on- 
ly one-half the quantity required before ; and yet they 
fattened as rapidly, as when eating the largest quantity*" 



264 , FATTENING. 

From these experiments, it appears, that the least quan- 
tity of food, which is required for fattening, is, when ani- 
mals are kept closely confined in warm shelters ; and the 
greatest quantity, when running at large exposed to all 
weather. But, although animals will fatten faster for a 
certain time, wiithout exercise than with it, if they are 
closely confined for any considerable time, and are at the 
same time full fed, they become, in some measure, fever- 
ish ; the proportion of fat becomes too large, and the meat 
is not so palateable and healtl^ as when they are allow- 
ed moderate exercise, in yards or small fields. 

As to the kinds of food which may be used most ad- 
vantageousl}7- in fattening, this Will generally depend upon 
what is raised upon the farm, it being preferable, in most 
cases, to use the produce of the farm. Sheep prefer beans 
to almost any other grain ; but neither beans or peas are so 
fattening, as some other grains ; and are used most advan- 
tageously along with them. Beans, peas, oats, barley, rye, 
buckwheat, &c, may be used along with Indian corn, or 
oil cake, or succulent food, making various changes and 
mixtures, in order to furnish the variety of food, which is 
so much relished by the sheep, and which should ever be 
attended to by the sheep fattener. This will prevent their 
being cloyed, and will hasten the fattening process. A va- 
riety of food, (says Mr. Spooner) operates like cookery in 
the human subject, enabling more .sustenance to be taken. 

The quantity of grain or succulent food, which, it will 
be proper to feed, will depend upon the size, age and con- 
dition of the sheep, and judgment must be used, in ascer- 
taining how much they can bear. Mr. Childers states that 
sheep (New Leicester) fed with the addition of half a 
pint of barley per sheep, per day ; half a pound of linseed 
oil cake, with hay, and a constant supply of salt, became 
ready for the butcher in ten weeks ; and gain of flesh and 
tallow, 33 lbs. to 40 lbs. per head. (One sheep gained 55 
lbs. in 12 weeks.) 

This experiment shows what is about the largest amount 
of grain which it is necessary or proper to feed to New 
Leicester sheep, at any time while fattening. The aver- 
age weight sf 40 New Leicester wethers before fattening^ 
was found by Mr. Childers to be 128£ lbs. each. By weigh- 
ing an average lot of any other khid of sheep, which ar« 



FATTENING. 265 

to be fattened, and by reference to the table of compara- 
tive nutriment of the different kinds of food, a calculation 
may be readily made, as to the largest amount, which will 
be necessary for them, of any article of food whatever. 

When sheep are first put up for fattening, they should 
be sorted, when convenient, so as to put those of the same 
age, size, and condition, each by themselves, so that each 
may have a fair chance to obtain its proportion of food, and 
may be fed the proper length of time. 

They should be fed moderately at first, gradually in- 
creasing the quantity to the largest amount, and making 
the proper changes of food, so as not to cloy them, nor 
produce acute diseases of the head or intestines, and never 
feeding so much as to scour them. 

Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than 
three times a day, viz : morning, noon, and evening. In 
the intervals between feeding, they may fill themselves 
well, and will have time sufficient for rumination and di- 
gestion ; these processes are interrupted by too frequent 
feeding. But they should be fed with regularity, both as 
to the quantity of food, and the time when it is given. — 
When convenient, they should have access to water at all 
times; otherwise, a full supply of it should be furnished to 
them immediately after they have consumed each fodder- 
ing. 

When sheep become extremely fat, whether purposely 
or not, it is generally expedient to slaughter them. Per- 
mitting animals to become alternately very fat and lean is 
injurious to all stock,. Therefore, if animals are too strong- 
ly inclined to fatten at an age when wanted for breeding, 
their condition as to flesh should be regulated by the quan- 
tity and quality of their food or pasture. 



266 CONDIMENTS. 

SECTION XL. 

CONDIMENTS. 

A condiment is defined to be, something which seasons 
food, or fits it for digestion. Man uses many condiments, 
such as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, aromatics, &c. The 
same course is pursued by other animals ; if left to them- 
selves, they range abroad far and near, gathering a variety 
of herbage, and each of the kinds which they select assists 
as a condiment, either directly or indirectly, in helping to 
digest other kinds. And in a state of nature, and where 
the number of animals is not too large, according to the 
range which they obtain, the vegetables which they find 
will contain all the condiments which they need. 

For this purpose, the sheep uses the greatest number of 
plants of any other domesticated quadruped, especially 
those which are bitter, astringent, and diuretic. Linnaeus 
found, in examining this subject, that by offering fresh 
plants to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, 
horses ate 262 species, and refused 212 ; cattle ate 276, 
and refused 218 ; while the sheep took 387 species, and 
only refused 141. 

In England, Ireland, and Scotland, ordinarily no salt is 
fed to sheep from one year's end to the other, especially 
where large flocks are kept, and tended by shepherds ; 
though, of late years, more salt is fed to them in those 
countries than formerly. Dr. Parry, a distinguished wool- 
grower of England, states, in his essay on sheep, that he 
never gave his sheep salt but once ; and then he mixed it 
amongst his hay when made into the rick. And in Spain, 
the transhumantes Merinos are salted only in summer, 
when on the mountains, in the northern parts of Spain. — 
♦Whereas, in the dry climate of New England, salt is con- 
sidered to be indispensable for them in all seasons. But, 
doubtless, sheep would do well without salt in ordinary 
seasons, on such a soil, and in such a climate, provided 
they could have as large a range as they might choose, on 
dry and hilly lands. And there are instances where sheep 
have been kept in Ohio and western Pennsylvania for 20 
years, without feeding any salt to them; letting them run in 



CONDIMENTS. 267 

the roads where there are no salt licks : and these sheep 
prospered more than those which were kept in fields ad- 
joining, and received plenty of salt, which, when fed free- 
ly, in a moist climate, helps to produce the rot. 

The truth is, that most, and perhaps all of the various 
plants which they eat, contain common salt, and a sufficient 
variety of them will furnish all the condiments which are 
necessary for sheep, and other graminivorous animals. — 
But when they are confined to a few acres, they can no 
longer find this variety, and sink with disease ; especially 
where the soil and climate are not particularly favorable to 
them. Magendie, a celebrated French physiologist, has 
shown, by experiment, that it is impossible to keep an ani- 
mal in a healthy state longer than six weeks on one article 
of diet ; death frequently taking place even before the end 
of that period. 

Now, as the customs of our country require that every 
person should keep their own animals mostly within their 
own boundaries, and these are frequently much circumscri- 
bed, it will become them to supply to their sheep such con- 
diments as may be deficient in their pasture or fodder, es- 
pecially bitter articles ; for bitterness is essentially neces- 
sary in the food of all herbivorous animals. Without it, 
they sooner or later fall into ill health. It promotes diges- 
tion, strengthens the stomach, and through the sympathetic 
medium of that organ, all other parts of the body. Bitter 
and diuretic plants or articles are necessary to the proper 
action of the kidneys of the sheep, on account of the suc- 
culence of their food. In Europe, sheep browse freely up- 
on broom and whin plants, both of which are highly diur- 
etic articles. 

One of the most useful bitter articles which can be fed to 
them, will be tar, (or pitch,) which may be mixed with 
the other condiments which I shall describe. These arti- 
cles are most excessively bitter, and are also strongly anti- 
septic, tonic, and diuretic ; and should be used in sufficient 
quantities, especially on wet soils, or wherever their food 
is very succulent. But as these articles are very powerful, 
large quantities of them will not be necessary. In winter, 
boughs of pine will be useful to them. Hop vines may be 
fed to them for bitters : they are used for this purpose in 
Sweden. These articles, or a portion of them, along with 



268 CONDIMENTS. 

the various bitter weeds and plants which are found in pas- 
ture fields and in meadows, and which may be saved, along 
with hay, will be amply sufficient for them. 

But the great and essential condiments which are neces- 
sary for sheep and other graminivorous animals, are found 
in the ashes of the various grains and vegetables upon 
which they feed, of which number, common salt is only 
one among several others. 

By inspection of the appendix, it will be seen that car- 
bon, or the basis of wood, is the principal ingredient in the 
formation of blood, flesh, and fat ; and by the analysis of 
hay and grain, it will be seen that carbon is also the princi- 
pal ingredient which goes to form those articles, or is the 
principal basis of them. Now, these various alkalies, salts, 
earths, and minerals, which are found in the ashes of these 
various grasses and grains, are the great natural condiments 
which are necessary in various proportions in the stomachs 
of every graminivorous animal which moves upon the face 
of the earth, along with the gastric juices, in order to dis- 
solve and transform the carbon, which is in their food, into 
chyle, and out of the combinations which are formed in the 
stomach, to form blood, flesh, bone, fat, &c. And all the 
ingredients which are necessary to form animals, are con- 
tained in the food which they usually consume. The sto- 
mach is, in fact, a kind of laboratory in which whatever food 
is placed, will be compounded and decompounded, so as to 
accomplish the transformations which are necessary, in or- 
der to nourish the system, and eventually to complete the 
metamorphosis of tissues which is continually going on in 
the animal system ; and these ashes, or condiments, are 
the means which the stomach uses, along with the air which 
is absorbed by the saliva, in the process of rumination,* in 
order to effect these transformations. 

As animals differ somewhat as to their internal func- 
tions, and the temperature of their bodies,! the carbon is, 
in some measure, differently eliminated in them, so as to 
provide nourishment suitable for each kind. 

And in accomplishing this purpose, it will be seen that 
those articles of food which are natural to graminivorous 
animals, and which are most nearly assimilated to that 

* Liebig's Animal Chemistry, page 39. f See Appendix. 



CONDIMENTS. 269 

state which is necessary in order to form chyle, and to en- 
ter the blood and the system, and which, of course, are 
most easy of digestion, contain the least amount of ashes 
or condiments ; because the least amount is necessary in 
order to transform such food. When the carbon enters the 
blood, it should have the same combinations as when in the 
blood. And I insert the analysis of the blood, and also of 
sundry articles of food, in order to show how the carbon 
must be changed in its combinations with oxygen, hydro- 
gen, and nitrogen, in order to form blood : 





Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Nitrogen. 


Oxj'gen. 


Ashes . 


Ox blood, 


dried, 51.96 


7.25 


15.07 


21.30 


4.42 


Wheat, 


45.78 


6.79 


2.09 


44.16 


1.18 


Oats, 


51.97 


6.27 


1.74 


37.43 


2.58 


Potatoes, 


44.01 


5.08 


1.50 


43.51 


5.00 


Hay, 


45.03 


5.00 


1.05 


38.07 


9.00 



By these analyses, it will be seen that the combinations 
of the carbon, in hay and in blood, differ very much ; and, 
therefore, a large amount of ashes or condiments is neces- 
sary, in order to effect the necessary transformation. The 
gastric juices alone would be insufficient to dissolve all the 
nutriment contained in such food. 

Therefore, whenever the food of sheep, or other gram- 
inivorous animals, is deficient in quality as to its composi- 
tion, they are strongly inclined to eat clay or dirt, in order 
to make up the deficiency of natural condiments contained 
in such food. In such case, it will be necessary that we 
provide for them those portions of these natural condiments 
which they require ; and these ashes I shall, for brevity's 
sake, call either natural condiments, or condiments, as may 
be convenient. 

In order, therefore, to ascertain what should be provi- 
ded for them, it will be necessary to ascertain and desig- 
nate the qualities of these ashes ; and for the sake of illus- 
tration, I shall take the article of white clover, and explain 
the properties of each article which is contained in the 
ashes of that plant, or the properties of the compounds 
formed by those articles ; for the acids form compounds 
with the alkalies and earths, in the various grains, and 
grasses, and other vegetables. This kind of grass contains 



270 • CONDIMENTS. 

every article which is usually found in the ashes of whole- 
some grains and grasses, except manganese. 

1000 pounds of white clover hay contain 91 32-100 lbs. 
of ashes, of which the component parts are as follows : 

Uncombined. In combination. 

Potash, 31.05 lbs. Potash, 31.05] Solvent and 
Soda, 5.79 Soda, 4.09 | relaxing ar- 

Chlorineor Chloride of } tides, 

muriatic a- sodium or 

cid, 2.11 common salt 3.81 J 

Magnesia, 3.05 Magnesia, 3.05 Relaxing eaith, i Neutralize car- 

Alumina, 1.90 Alumina, 1.90 Absorbent earth, > bonaceous 

Lime, 23.48 Lime, 14.84 Astringent earth,} acids. 

Sulphate of ) 

-Sulphuric lime or 

acid, 3.53 gypsum, 6.00 

Phosphate 
Phosphoric of lime or 

acid, 5.05 bone dust, 11.22 } Tonic articles. 

Oxyd of i- | 

ron, or 

Oxyd of i- rust of | 

ron, 0.6.3 iron, 0.63 j 

Silica, or J 

Silica. 14.73 sand, 14.73 Neutral earth, 

91.32 lbs. 91.32 lbs. 

1st. Potash is a powerful solvent, and is necessary in 
the formation of milk, says Liebig. When superabundant, 
it relaxes the stomach and bowels extremely. It abounds 
in alluvial soils and rich uplands ; and the true reason why 
such lands rot sheep, is, not that they create fluke 'worms, 
but that the great quantities of potash, in combination with 
saccharine matter.-!, in grasses growing on such lands, espe- 
cially in those which are young and succulent, produce 
acids, which relax and inflame the bowels. 

2d. Soda. The appearance and solvent properties of 
potash and soda are very similar ; but they are essentially 
different substances. Potash, when exposed to the air, at- 
tracts moisture, whereas soda parts with its moisture when 
thus exposed, and becomes a dry powder. Soda is a com- 
ponent part of the bile of animals, and, therefore, is essen- 
tially necessary to them, in proper quantities, but more par- 
ticularly to the sheep, whose saliva contains so large a 
. proportion of carbonate of soda, that it will effervesce with 
acids. — (Graham's Chemistry.) 



CONDIMENTS. 27 1 

3d. Chlorine, or Muriatic acid. This article, also, is 
a powerful solvent, and forms a component part of the gas- 
tric juices of the stomach, and, combined with soda, forms 
chloride of sodium, (Muriate of soda,) or common salt, 
which is strongly antiseptic and purgative. When used in 
moderate quantities, it stimulates the digestive organs and 
the glands; when superabundant, it is very relaxing. 

4th. Magnesia is a relaxing earth, and neutralizes acids. 
It is, also,|a small component part of bones. 

5th. Alumina is an absorbent earth, and neutralizes 
acids. 

6th. Lime. This is an earth which is never found in 
its pure state. When combined with carbonic acid, as usu- 
ally found, it is, in some measure, astringent, and neutrali- 
zes all the acids which can be formed in the stomach, and 
renders them inert and harmless. For this purpose, large 
quantities of it are necessary in the stomachs of graminiv- 
orous animals. 

7th. Sulphuric acid, in combination with lime, forms 
sulphate of lime or gypsum, (Plaster of Paris.) which is an 
astringent and antiseptic condiment. Sulphur is the basis 
of sulphuric acid ; and sulphur is a component part of milk, 
wool, hair, horns, and hoofs. Gypsnm seems to be the 
natural astringent for the mucus membranes and the lacteal 
ducts of the intestines, that nothing improper or impure 
may pass through them into the animal system, and its 
antiseptic properties prevent inflammation and decompo- 
sition. " Sheep are very subject to infiltrations," says Do 
Aubenton, that is, they readily receive into the system too 
many acid crudities. Therefore, they should, at all times, 
receive a sufficient supply of lime and gypsum to neutral- 
ize the acids which are formed in the stomach, and to as- 
tringe the bowels. And the greater the quantity, of potash, 
soda, or common salt there is in the soil and plants grow- 
ing upon it, the greater will be the quantity of lime and 
gypsum which they will need in their condiments ; for, in 
order to perfect digestion, the condiments should be rightly 
proportioned in the stomach. 

8th. Phosphoric acid, in combination with lime, forms 
phosphate of lime : phosphate of lime is the basis of bones, 
and some portion of it is supposed to be directly assimilated 
in the stomach for that purpose, and it is tonic and astrin- 



212 CONDIMENTS. 

gent. A proper supply of phosphate of lime, either in food 
or as a condiment, is essentially necessary to the full devel- 
opment of bone in growing animals. 

9th. Oxyd of Iron is a powerful tonic medicine, and is 
a component part of the blood. In the circulation of the 
blood through the lungs, the iron becomes oxydized, and 
carries oxygen to every part of the body. 

10th. Silica is a neutral earth. It seems to form the 
bones of plants, as phosphate of lime forms the bones of 
animals. 

11th. Oxyd of Manganese. This article is not found 
in white clover : but it is found in the straw of beans, peas, 
barley, and oats ; all of which articles are healthy for 
sheep and cattle. It is also found in the grain of rye, and 
roots of carrots; and it may be the cause why those arti- 
cles are so healthy for some persons and animals. It op- 
erates powerfully and favorably upon the glands : its effects 
upon the liver, kidneys, and the glands of the throat and 
skin, have been more particularly noticed. — (Braithwaite's 
Retrospect.) 

The natural condiments are the means which the su- 
preme power has prescribed for the due regulation of the 
animal system, and are necessary, either for the purpose of 
digestion, secretion, or action : therefore, a full knowledge 
of their properties is highly necessary. 

The subject may be, in some measure, illustrated by the 
analysis of the fceces of a cow, by Mr. Dana. By his an- 
alysis, it appears that there pass daily through a healthy 
cow, feeding on 24 lbs. of hay and 12 lbs. of potatoes, as 
follows : 



Humus or geine, 


12 


lbs. 


Phosphate of lime (bone dust), 


3 


oz. 


Gypsum (Plaster of Paris), 


H 


« 


Carbonate of lime (chalk), 


H 


a 


Common salt, 


l 


tt 


Sulphate of potash, 


f 


a 



By this analysis, we see that the lime and salts of lime, 
which passed through this animal, were six times as much 
as the common salt, and all advantageously for this animal ; 
and all this without counting the silica, alumina, and mag- 



CONDIMENTS. 273 

nesia, which were included in what he calls Humus or 
geine, and these articles were equal in quantity, in the hay 
and potatoes consumed, to at least half as much as the salts 
of lime. So that, of the whole amount of condiments which 
passed through this animal daily, not more than one-tenth 
was common salt. 

The solid fceces of a sheep were analyzed by Zierl. 

1000 parts of sheep-dung, being burnt, yielded 96 parts of 
ashes, which were found to consist of — 

Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, 16 parts. 

Carbonate and phosphate of lime, 20 do. 

Silica, 60 do. 

By this analysis, we can hardly estimate the amount of 
common salt which was voided at as much as one-tenth of 
the different condiments. So that, with a soil and climate 
of average moisture, we need not estimate that the common 
salt should he more than one-tenth of the whole amount of 
condiments which are necessary or proper for sheep, with- 
out including potash. 

Now, in order to estimate what condiments will be ne- 
cessary for sheep on every kind of soil, as the sheep de- 
lights in a poor, dry soil, in which there is not much po- 
tash, we may compute that there is always potash and soda 
enough in the grasses which grow on any soil, on which 
sheep should be kept, so as to form a supply of alkalies, 
with what soda will be furnished in common salt. There- 
fore, we have only to furnish common salt, and the other 
condiments to them. 

By the analysis of Sprengel, the ashes of red beach and 
oak, contain the following ingredients : 



m 


CONDIMENTS. 








Red Beach. 


Oak. 


Silica, 




5.62 


29.95 


Alumina, 




2.23) 




Oxyd of iron, 




3.77 V 


8.14 


Oxyd of Manganese, 




3.85^ 




Lime, 




25.00 


17.38 


Magnesia, 




5.00 


1.44 


Potash, 




22.11 


16.20 


Soda, 




3.32 


6.73 


Sulphuric acid, 




7.64 


3.36 


Phosphoric acid, 




5.64 


1.92 


Chlorine (or Muriatic acid), 


1.84 


2.41 


Carbonic acid, 




14.00 


12.37 



100.00 100.00 

By these analyses, we see that every essential condiment 
is present in these ashes ; the ashes of trees, grasses, and 
grains are similar in their composition. But as potash is 
not wanted, and will be injurious, leached ashes should be 
used; and as the proportion of gypsum which is contained 
in oak ashes, and in the ashes of many other kinds of trees, 
is very small, it will be necessary to add gypsum. And 
thus, by mixing leached ashes, gypsum, and common salt 
in their proper proportions, along with bitter articles, we 
have all the natural condiments which will be necessary 
for sheep on every soil, and in every climate, season, or 
weather, so that, with what is contained in the grasses, their 
digestion may be fully perfected. 

Every person may not fully understand these computa- 
tions : but they will find, that upon a very dry soil, and in 
a very dry climate and seasons, they may not need any 
condiment for sheep but common salt; for under such cir- 
cumstances, the grasses will be fully perfected. But in a 
moist climate, the grasses will seldom be fully perfected ; 
and in warm wet seasons or weather, or on a moist soil, 
silica and potash will abound in the grasses, but lime, gyp- 
sum, and other earthy condiments will be, in some meas- 
ure, deficient, so that the acids of the stomach will not be 
neutralized, nor the bowels properly astringed, and animals 
will suffer great injury from the want of the condiments 



CONDIMENTS. 275 

which are necessary for digestion, unless they are supplied 
to them. 

We may, therefore, set it down as a rule, that, the mois- 
ter the soil, the climate, or the weather, the greater should 
be the proportion of leached ashes and gypsum with bitter 
and diuretic articles, and the smaller the proportion of 
common salt ; and with a drier soil, climate or weather, 
an increased proportion of common salt, and less of the 
other ingredients. 

Alluvial soils may be counted as bad as wet upland soils, 
for sheep grazing upon them. 

Those who spread leached ashes, lime, gypsum, or phos- 
phate of lime, upon their land, will see the benefitof them 
to their stock in ordinary seasons ; * but in very wet sea- 
sons or weather, it will be necessary to use the all same 
condiments, as on wet land. 

The most convenient mode of feeding condiments to 
sheep is, to place them in a box or trough, with a cover 
over head, so as to exclude the rain. The cover should 
be raised up by standards, 13 or 20 inches higher than the 
top of the box, so that they may have free access to them 
at all times; they will then take so much, as will be neces- 
sary for perfect digestion, and will not injure themselves 
by ea,ting too much. And with them may be placed, and 
mixed together with a shovel, pitch, tar, or rosin finely 
pulverized, soot, sulphur, or any other article, which may 
be useful or necessary for them. 

I have used ten parts leached ashes, one part gypsum, 
and two or three parts common salt, in wet seasons ; at 
other times, one-third salt, and the balance in gypsum and 
ashes. Others can mix these articles, as they find neces- 
sary by experiment. For each one hundred sheep, two to 
four pounds of pitch pulverized, and mixed with these arti- 
cles monthly, will be Sufficient in most cases, to prevent 
dropsy, and affections of the lungs. The various condi- 
ments should be rightly proportioned. If the alkalies and 
alkaline salts superabound, they will be injurious by causing 
too great relaxation ; but if the earthy condiments super- 
abound, they will pass through the bowels harmlessly. 

Where ashes cannot be conveniently obtained, two parts 



*See A. Agriculturist far 1343, pa 



.<;.■•€■ 93, 



276 



CONDIMENTS. 



slacked lime or chalk, one part gypsum, and one or two 
parts of common salt, may be mixed together, and used 
advantageously for the same purpose ; and, if convenient, 
one part burnt clay may be pulverized, and usefully mixed 
with these ingredients, along with bitter articles. The 
quantity which sheep will eat weekly varies ; sometimes a 
hundred sheep, will eat, in one week, a bushel of salt, ash- 
es and gypsum, mixed in proportion as first mentioned : at 
other times the same amount will suffice them for three or 
four weeks. The quantity of ashes and gypsum, which 
they seem to require, evidently depends upon the quality 
of the grass or hay. . 

Perfect digestion is the great source of health to all ani- 
mals, and, therefore, particular attention should be paid to 
supply the condiments which may be necessary for them"; 
and when they are supplied, their digestion will generally 
be very perfect, and a less quantity of food will suffice 
them, than if they are withheld. 

In order to test the properties of gypsum, I fed one part 
gypsum, and two parts common salt to sheep and cattle. 
In the softest and rankest pastures, all diarrhoea of sheep 
was entirely prevented. Its effect upon calves and fatting 
cattle was particularly excellent. Also gypsum mixed 
with salt or with provender is very useful to horses afflict- 
ed with slavering, or the heaves. 




BOX FOR CONDIMENTS. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 277 

SECTION XLI. 

DISEASES OF SHEEP . 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

In order to understand the proper management of sheep, 
a general knowledge of their diseases will be necessary. 
It is only by knowing the causes and symptoms of disease, 
that we can fully understand the correct modes of preven- 
tion and treatment. 

l^.The animal system is composed of solids and fluids ; 
and these solids and fluids are ordinarily composed of all 
the different ingredients, which are found in the grain of 
wheat, except silica and alumina. Upon the proper organ- 
ization and secretion of these different ingredients, de- 
pends the nutrition and preservation of the animal sys- 
tem. The improper organization, secretion or decomposi- 
tion of these ingredients, produces disease and death. 
Hence, the treatment of diseases will consist in the resto- 
ration of the regular secretions, and the prevention of de- 
composition. 

The food and principles of digestion,, of man and other 
graminivorous animals, are much alike and their diseases 
and causes of disease, upon a careful comparison of them, 
will be found to be much more alike than most people ima- 
gine. Their digestive organs being stronger than those of 
man, they need larger doses, in proportion to their size, 
than man, in order to affect them. But as a general rule, 
when the disease is evidently similar to that of man,' med- 
icines of the same class as for man, may be used advan- 
tageously for the sheep. 

In their treatment, we should ascertain, as nearly as 
possible, the nature and symptoms of the disease, with 
which the animal is afflicted, the qualities of the medicine 
which we intend to administer, the effects which we intend 
this medicine shall have, and the quantity which will be 
necessary in order to produce the desired effect. And in 
all cases where any of the natural condiments can be used 
beneficially, they will be the best of medicine, if rightly 
used. 



278 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

The natural habitat of the sheep is upon very dry up- 
lands and mountains, where the herbage is fully perfected, 
and the air is invigorating. Hence, as man places the 
sheep on various localities, which are unsuitable for it, 
whereby it is exposed to unnatural relaxation, it is, in such 
situations, particularly subject to diseases of debility from 
this cause. 

But as the sheep is afflicted with different diseases in dif- 
ferent countries and climates, it becomes every flock-mas- 
ter or shepherd to attend more particularly to the nature of 
those diseases which are most common in his country. — 
Under these circumstances, it is proper that some account 
of every variety of diseases should be contained in a shep- 
herd's compendium. 

SIGNS OF HEALTH. 

Signs of health in sheep are. a skittish brightness, clear 
azure eye, florid ruddy eye-strings and gums, teeth fast, 
breath sweet, nose and eyes dry, respiration free and regu- 
lar, feet cool, dung substantial, wool fast and unbroken, 
skin of a fine florid red, particularly on the brisket. — (Law- 
rence on Cattle, page 337.) 



SECTION XL1I. 
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. , 

Apoplexy, Inflammation of the Brain, Hydrocephalus, Ep- 
ilepsy, Palsy, Tetanus, and Rheumatism. 

APOPLEXY. 

This disease consists in a fatal pressure of the blood up- 
on the brain ; the base of the brain, whence arise the nerves 
of sensation and motion, is compressed, benumbed, and its 
functions are suspended : the animal loses all feeling and 
power of voluntary action — life is suspended or lost. There 
is no inflammation, though it sometimes follows apoplexy. 

This disease is caused by a redundancy of blood in 
the system, or by any thing which causes too great a flow 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 279 

of blood towards the head. Hence, a sudden change from 
very short to very luxuriant pasture, or over feeding them 
with grain or succulent food, or worrying or over dri- 
ving fat sheep, will sometimes produce it. Hence, fat 
sheep should ever be driven with moderation. The New 
Leicester sheep, from their greater tendency to fatten and 
be plethoric, are more liable to apoplexy than most other 
breeds. 

Symptoms. The attack is usually sudden : the sheep 
moves forward or stands still, unconscious ; the eyes are 
dilated or prominent, and sometimes the animal is almost 
or quite blind : the membranes of the nostrils and of the 
conjunctiva of the eye are full of blood, and of a deep red 
or violet hue; the nostrils are dilated, the pulse hard and 
full, and the breathing generally sterterous ; if not relieved, 
the sheep will usually stagger and fall, and will often die 
in less than half an hour ; but sometimes will linger for 
several days, or the disease will terminate in inflammation 
of the brain. These symptoms are produced by the pres- 
sure of the blood upon the brain, and sometimes its vessels 
are ruptured. 

Treatment. If the symptoms are aggravated, a quanti- 
ty of blood, half a pint or a pint, should be promptly drawn 
from the neck vein ; and two or three ounces of Epsom or 
Glauber salts should be immediately administered. If ne- 
cessary, give small doses of the same, half an ounce or 
less, once in six hours, until the feverish symptoms are 
fully reduced. For lambs, half the same quantities will 
be sufficient. The sheep should be fed sparingly for a few 
days. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Sometimes the substance of the brain, and, at other times 
its membranes, and occasionally both of them are subject 
to inflammation. Inflammation of the substance of the 
brain often follows an attack of the apoplexy, and is gene- 
rally produced by nearly the same causes as apoplexy, and 
occasionally by atmospheric influence. 

Symptoms. In an early stage of the disease, the eyes 
are red and protruded — the animal is dull and heavy, and 
disinclined to move ; but the scene soon changes — the 
eyes brighten— the flanks begin to heave — the sheep is in 



289 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

constant motion — he cocks his tail and gallops about the 
field, and attacks his companions, or the shepherd, or even 
a post or tree — appears frantic. 

Treatment. The animal should be confined, without 
delay, so as not to injure itself or other things. It should 
then be bled and purged, as in case of apoplexy, and the 
purgative medicines should be continued until the animal 
is fully restored. 

In case of apoplexy or inflammation of the brain, as soon 
as the animal is fully restored to health, it should be slaugh- 
tered, or otherwise disposed of; for it will be liable to are- 
turn of the complaint from slight causes. 

Prevention. In England, sheep are frequently subject- 
ed to this disease by being changed from short pasture into 
a field of fine turnips. This circumstance shows, that in 
in order to prevent this disease in such cases, the sheep 
should be dosed with plenty of tar, pitch, rosin, or other 
diuretic articles ; for, besides water, the turnips contain on- 
ly a small proportion of nutriment, but the excess of wa- 
ter in them causes a plethora, which in such cases can be 
avoided only by exciting the kidneys into full action. 

HYDROCEPHALUS. 

Hydrocephalus, or sturdy, is a collection of water or 
serum in the brain. The water is collected, either in hy- 
datids, from the causes hereafter mentioned, or it is col- 
lected in some of the natural cavities (the ventricles) of 
the brain. In the latter case it is owing to a congested 
state of the spinal marrow, the result of long continued 
cold upon the back, as appears by the following circum- 
stances, pointed out by the Ettrick shepherd, in the Farmer's 
Magazine for 1812. 

1. — It is always most common after a windy or sleety 
winter. 

2. — It is always most destructive on farms which are ill 
sheltered, and on which sheep are most exposed to blasts 
or showers. 

3. — It preys only on sheep rising their first year, when 
the wool separates above, leaving their backs quite exposed 
to wet and cold. 

4. — If a piece of cloth, or hide, is sewed to the wool, so 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 281 

as to cover the back, such a sheep will not be affected with 
the disease. 

Mr. Spooner says : " This disease is considered to be 
more prevalent in wet undrained soils, than in high and 
dry pastures." This circumstance shows that the succu- 
lent quality of the food is also a frequent cause of dropsy 
in the head, as it is of dropsy in other parts of the body ; 
and, therefore, both external and internal influences oper- 
ate to produce this disease. 

When the water is contained in hydatids, these hydatids 
are unconnected with the brain. They are thin cysts, or 
bladders, containing serum, and are formed of a variety of 
shapes, so as to accommodate themselves to the cavity in 
which they are formed. In either case, the water acts fa- 
tally by its pressure upon the brain. This excessive accu- 
mulation of fluid within the brain, leads to the dilatation 
of the skull, and the absorption of its walls, when the bones 
can no longer be made to yield. For this reason, the skull, 
towards the termination of the disease, frequently becomes 
thin and soft in front of the root of the horn, or on the sides 
of the head. In a head which was presented to A. Black- 
lock by Mr. Grieve, each temple, exactly beneath the upper 
extremity of the upright branch of the lower jaw, displayed 
a circular opening entirely through the bone, wide enough 
to permit the passage of an ounce bullet. 

Symptoms. Very soon after the water begins to collect, 
either in the brain, or in the hydatids contained in the 
brain, the animal shows evident and decisive symptoms : 
these symptoms are, a dull, moping appearance ; a wander- 
ing and blue appearance of the eye, and sometimes partial 
or total blindness; the sheep appears giddy and unsteady 
in its walk — will sometimes stop and suddenly fall down ; 
at other times, will gallop across the field, or separate itself 
from the flock ; and after the disease has existed for some 
time, will almost constantly move around in a circle. There 
seems (says Mr. Spooner,) to be an aberration of the intel- 
lect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely all 
present in the same subject, are yet sufficientiy marked t< 
prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. 

Treatment. When the existence of a collection of wa- 
ter near the surface of the brain, is denoted by the skull 
yielding, at some particular spot, to the firm pressure of the 



282 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

thumb, the disease may sometimes be ended at once, by 
thrusting an awl or steel wire through the bone, down to» 
wards the centre of the brain. This will let out the water, 
and may end the disease at once. A small syringe may be 
used to pump out the water, or contents of the hydatid, if 
necessary. A boy, in England, cured a sheep of sturdy, by 
boring with a gimblet directly through the skin and bone, 
on the top of the head. When it was done, the sheep was 
lying stupid upon the ground : the water streamed out, and 
the sheep soon jumped up, and went to eating with its fel- 
lows, and recovered. — (Amer. Agriculturist.) 

Another method, pointed out by Blacklock, is as follows: 
Make two incisions, so that when completed, they shall be 
in the form of the letter T, in the skin covering the soft 
part of the bone, under which the hydatid is supposed to 
be. Two flaps are in this way marked out, and should be 
dissected back, so as to expose the skull to view. The 
yielding portion of the latter should then be pared away, 
which will bring the sac to view. This will be seen 
alternately to rise and sink, following, in this respect, 
the motions of the brain. A moderate sized needle, 
slightly curved and filled with thread, should be passed 
through the cyst, and the thread allowed to remain. The fluid 
is thus permitted slowly to escape, and, at the same time, 
the sac becomes slowly collapsed : after which it is easily 
removed by pulling gently at the thread with which it is 
connected. As good a hold should be taken with the string 
as possible, and all the water should be allowed to flow out 
before any attempt is made to extract the remains of the 
hydatid. To conclude the operation, lay down the flaps of 
the skin in their original position, covering them with a 
small piece of folded linen, smeared with lard, and over all 
apply a cap. Never try to save the bone which you cut 
in the form of a lid ; for, by so doing, you will only endan- 
ger the life of the animal, which otherwise will be in little 
danger. 

It will often happen that the hydatid, from being in the 
interior of the brain, will not be brought into view by the 
removal of a portion of the skull. In this case, the brain 
must be punctured, in order to reach the sac, and evactuate 
its contents. 

Either of the above plans appear to be much superior to 



, DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 283 

that which was devised by Mr. Hogg, the Eurick Shepherd, 
of running a knitting-needle, or other wire, up through the 
nostril into the brain : for, in such a process, there is but 
a small chance to hit the water or hydatid which is con- 
tained in the brain ; and there is great danger of injuring 
the delicate parts within the nose and brain, so as to pre- 
clude the possibility of recovery ; and, of course, a large 
proportion of those which are treated in such a manner, 
must die. 

If the animal is very valuable, it may be well to employ 
a regular surgeon to remove a portion of the skull with a 
trephine, which is a circular saw, which is used for such 
purposes. This plan has been employed successfully in 
many instances; but there is danger of inflammation, and 
the number of failures has greatly preponderated over the 
cures. — (W. C. Spooner.) 

If the animal is not very valuable, it may be well to 
butcher it for the pelt and tallow. 

Mr. Greaves, of Bakewell, Derbyshire, (in England,) 
states, in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Agri- 
cultural Society of England, that " the easiest and most 
effectual way, not only to cure, but to prevent its progress, 
is, to take some common tar, and place it between the eyes 
of all the sheep, spreading it down to the nose, and it is as- 
tonishing to find how soon they recover ; nor will any oth- 
er of the sheep, having the tar applied in this manner, be 
liable to have the complaint." 

Prevention of Hydrocephalus. The above statement 
by Mr. Greaves seems to show, that the diuretic properties 
of the tar, which the sheep lick from their noses, have the 
same effect in preventing or curing dropsy in the head, that 
they have with respect to dropsy in other parts of the body ; 
and in summer, when sheep are pastured upon succulent 
grasses, the use of pulverized pitch, or tar, or rosin, mixed 
with other condiments, must be depended upon for the pre- 
vention of sturdy. 

To prevent this disease in winter, it will be necessary, 
in addition, where the climate is moist, to supply sheep 
with wholesome dry fodder, and sufficient shelters. Brat- 
ting them, that is, covering their backs lengthwise with pie- 
ces of cloth or hide, or smearing their backs lengthwise 
with a mixture of tar and grease, will doubtless be useful, 



284 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 

where suitable shelters cannot be provided. The climate 
of the United States is much drier than that of Britain or 
northern France, and sturdy is, consequently, a rare com- 
plaint in these Stales. Even in districts where the rot pre- 
vails, sturdy is rarely seen. This circumstance shows 
that a moist climate or weather is the most frequent cause 
of this disease. Consequently, good shelters in winter will 
contribute greatly towards its prevention. 

" This disease (says Mr. Spooner,) is principally confi- 
ned to young sheep, and to their first year : so that, on the 
continent of Europe, they in some places avoid it, by keep- 
ing the sheep in houses or sheds during their first year, 
which, it is stated, prevents the disease. It is much more 
common on the continent of Europe, and particularly in 
France, than in England ; and it is supposed, that in the 
latter country it destroys nearly a million annually, and in 
Germany, upwards of two per cent." 

EPILEPSY. 

Epilepsy, in the sheep, is known by the names of Epi- 
lepsy, Leaping-ill, Louping-ill, Twaner-ill, or Trembling. 
The symptoms of this disease are very similar to those of 
Epilepsy in man, and hence, Epilepsy seems to be the ap- 
propriate name for it. 

Epilepsy consists in an inordinate action of the nervous 
system, and of the voluntary muscles connected with it, and 
strongly resembles tetanus — tetanus in the sheep being lit- 
tle more than an aggravated state of Epilepsy. 

Causes of Epilepsy. Epilepsy is usually produced in 
the sheep by exposure to cold wet weather, and pasturing 
upon frozen grasses, in a moist climate, and proceeds from 
their not having been folded, or from their being dismissed 
from their fold too early in the morning, so that they gath- 
er a quantity of congealed water with their food, which 
chills the rumen, and determines the blood towards the 
head, and the nervous system is effected through the me- 
dium of the nerves of the stomach. Hence, attacks of Ep- 
ilepsy are most frequent at the beginning of spring, or to- 
wards the latter part of autumn, when the hoar frost lies 
thick upon the ground. 

Symptoms, ii the animal is in high order, it will, on a 
sudden, and without any apparent cause, cease to graze — 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 285 

will stare stupidly in every direction, stagger, run round 
three or four times, and then fall and struggle violently for 
several minutes; and these symptoms are often accompa» 
nied with gnashing of the teeth, foaming at the mouth, and 
a spasmodic locking of the jaws. In such cases, the brain 
is oppressed by congestion of the blood upon it, much in the 
same manner as in incipient apoplexy, and the animal of- 
ten dies off within a short period, unless relieved. 

These sudden attacks oftenest occur in young sheep 
which are in good condition, and after a sudden and im- 
provident change of pasture. • 

If the animal is in rather low condition as to flesh, when 
first slightly attacked, it exhibits a dull, heavy appearance, 
with what may be termed a deadness of coat ; there is a 
loss of power in one or more limbs, and sometimes of«a 
whole side, or even of the whole animal — the head and 
neck are drawn spasmodically towards the shoulder or 
back with a violent tremor, and a constriction of the oeso- 
phagus, so as to endanger suffocation, when a liquid is at- 
tempted to be conveyed to the stomach, together with a 
spasmodic locking of the jaws, and emission of a frothy 
saliva from the mouth, when the convulsive fits come on, 
which, in some cases, frequently happens once or twice 
every five minutes, together with a laborious and quick res- 
piration, which subsides altogether as soon as the fit has 
terminated. 

In this deplorable state the animal will sometimes re- 
main for minutes, hours, or days, according to the severity 
of the attack ; and if it does not rally from it, death sooner 
or later ensues; or it becomes necessary to use the knife 
as the only means of putting an end to its sufferings. — 
Sometimes the animal will rally and recover from this sit- 
uation, and get entirely well; but, in other cases, one of 
the hind legs often remains cold and powerless for some 
lime, in spite of the use of friction or stimulants; and 
sometimes a tumor of the size of a pigeon's egg, or even of 
a hen's egg, filled with pus or ichor, will appear near one 
of the joints or arms of the legs, or upon the brisket, or near 
those parts. 

If the sheep is predisposed to Epilepsy, by the quality 
of the pasture and wet, frosty weather, the disease will 
some limes make its appearance, if the animal is injured 



286 DISEASES GF THE BRAIN. 

either in its loins by running, jumping, or stretching, or 
by rough usage in the fold, or if the udder of ewes that are 
near the time of yeaning, be underlocked, as the fatigue 
which they thereby undergo, and the cold which thus pen- 
etrates to the most tender parts, are often followed by the 
most fatal consequences. — (See Spooner on Sheep.) 

Treatment. When the disease arises from injuries to 
the back, loins, or other parts of the body, by accidents or 
by rough usage in the fold, Blacklock advises that the sheep 
should be slaughtered ; as, should a cure be attempted, the 
treatment, in ordinary hands, will be too tedious and com- 
plicated to succeed. 

When the disease comes on suddenly and violently, it 
is owing to oppression of the brain from congestion. In 
such cases, copious blood-letting and doses of Epsom salts 
will be found most useful. This kind of Epilepsy is almost 
certain to end in sturdy, unless combatted by energetic de- 
pletion. — (Blacklock.) 

When the animal is in low condition, and the disease 
comes on moderately, or if of long standing, and has ev- 
ery appearance of the true Epilepsy, blood-letting will be 
injurious. In such cases, warm shelter, with a supply of 
dry nutritious food, will frequently restore the animal. If 
this fails, give frequent doses of an infusion of horse castor, 
made by seetheing it in water. In Epilepsy of man, this 
has been found to be the most effectual of all remedies; 
and possibly it may be quite as useful to the sheep as to 
man. 

Prevention of Epilepsy. Exposure to cold wet weather, 
and feeding upon frozen herbage in a moist climate, appear 
to be the principal causes of this disease. Hence, in such 
climates, it may be avoided by providing good shelters, and 
feeding the sheep with dry hay in the morning, during 
frosty weather, and not permitting them to feed on grass 
in the morning until the frost has disappeared. 

Epilepsy is a frequent disease in the moist climate of 
northern Europe. In the dry climate of the United States, 
it is rarely or never seen ; nevertheless, its occurrence in 
Europe shows the injurious influence which Avet, frozen 
herbage must, in some measure, exert upon the sheep in 
other climates. 



DISEASES OP THE BRAIN. 287 

TETANUS. 

This disease, which is more usually understood under 
the term of Locked Jaw — this being a principal and com- 
mon symptom — consists of a violent irritation of the ner- 
vous system, occasioning the spasmodic and violent con- 
traction of the voluntary muscles of the body, particularly 
those of the neck, jaw, and back. It usually commences 
with a peculiar motion of the head, and sometimes of the 
limbs, and the jaw becomes fixed, and there is a grinding 
of the teeth. These appearances, Which are involuntary, 
increase, and the head is bent round, the neck twisted, and 
one of the limbs fixed. The muscles feel very hard, being 
in a violent state of action ; and sometimes they become 
less rigid, and convulsions take place. These symptoms 
are often fatal in the course of twelve hours; but if the 
sheep survives more than two days, it is likely to recover. 

" This disease is more common with lambs than with 
sheep, and is not unfrequently the effect of castration, par- 
ticularly when the operation is performed with unusual vio- 
lence, and by means of twisting. Exposure to cold and 
wet is also a 'frequent cause, and deaths oftener arise from 
this neglect than farmers are generally aware of." It also 
sometimes arises from wounds or bruises, or a foul state of 
the bowels. 

Treatment. The treatment should consist in removing 
the animal to a more comfortable, quiet place, where no 
disturbance can possibly arise. The. body should be kept 
comfortably warm, and a mild purgative should be given, 
such as linseed oil or castor oil. This should be followed 
by doses of one-third of a scruple of laudanum, with the 
same quantity of ginger, in thick gruel three times daily. 
The animal should be disturbed as little as possible, for it 
has been found in this disease that quietude is one of the 
most important agents in establishing a cure. If laudanum 
fails to give relief, doses of an infusion or decoction of 
horse castor should be administered freely, with gruel suf- 
ficient to preserve the strength of the animal. 

PALSY. 

This disease consists in a partial suspension of the pow- 
ers of the nervous system. Semetimes the animal is totally 



288 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN* 

helpless — every limb being, in some measure affected ; at 
other times, the disease is principally confined to the loins. 
It differs from apoplexy — apoplexy being a total suspension 
of the powers oi' the nervous system. 

" The cause of this disease is generally cold combined 
with moisture ; the animal becomes chilled, and is found, 
perhaps after a snowy night, in the helpless state before 
mentioned. Though more frequently affecting lambs, it 
may also attack sheep of all ages, and particularly the ewe 
that has aborted her lamb with difficulty, and after a tedi- 
ous labor in cold weather. It often attacks the newly drop- 
ped lamb, arid sometimes proves fatal during the night. — 
When less severe, the lamb is found stationary, and with 
its hind legs powerless ; and when this is the case, it rarely 
becomes otherwise than stunted in its growth, though after 
a time it may get rid of the paralysis. 

" This disease is often confounded with Rheumatism, and 
is sometimes connected with it ; but the former has its ori- 
gin in the nerves, whilst the latter, (the rheumatism,) 
though more painful, is an affection of the muscles." — 
(Spooner.) 

* 4 This disease is sometimes produced by an excess of 
nutriment, or by the quality of the food. 

" Mr. Cleve, in the first volume of the Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural Society of England, relates the follow- 
ing facts : " I had been giving two cart-loads of mangel 
wurtzel daily to about 150 couples. Finding the pasture 
get short, I one day ordered an extra load, and the follow- 
ing day 1 found that thirteen of the ewes had nearly lost 
the use of their limbs. On another occasion, having some 
hoggets that would not eat the roots, I enclosed them in a 
pen, in order to starve them to it; but as soon as they be- 
gan to feed heartily, they were all similarly effected. If I 
rightly attribute the complaint to this cause, and, indeed, I 
have no doubt on the subject, the treatment is, to withhold 
the mangel wurtzel for a short time, and only return to the 
use of it gradually, and in small quantities." 

Treatment. " In the cases last mentioned, Mr. Cleve 
bled, and gave each sheep an ounce and a half of Epsom 
salts, under which treatment they all recovered, with one 
exception." 

In ordinary cases of Palsy, arising in the manner first 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 289 

mentioned, the treatment should consist in the application 
of warmth externally, but moderate at first, and gradually 
increased. A drachm of ginger, or other mild stimulant, 
mixed with gruel, should then be administered to the sheep ; 
and the dose should be repeated occasionally until the ani- 
mal is restored. 

A lamb thus afflicted should be wrapped in a blanket, and 
placed in a warm room, but not too near the fire. A little 
ginger mixed with a little warm milk, may then be given to 
it ; but as soon as it is able to move about, it should be pla- 
ced with its dam, in a comfortable place, and her care and 
milk will, in most cases, gradually restore it. 

If symptoms of Diarrhoea should appear, the treatment 
recommended under that head should be employed. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Rheumatism is an affection of the muscles instead of 
the nerves, and consists in a peculiar inflammation of those 
parts, very frequently causing considerable pain, when they 
are called into action. It is usually caused by exposure to 
cold wet weather, and sometimes shifts from one part to 
another, occasionally degenerating into a slow, or chro- 
nic form, and attacking the sinews, ligaments and joints, as 
well as muscles. " The neck and loins, (in England) are 
the parts most frequently attacked, either separately or 
combined. The former affection causes the head to be car- 
ried in a bent position, and the latter produces considera- 
ble stiffness and weakness of the loins." 

In America, the thighs and legs of sheep appear to be 
more frequently affected with this complaint, than other 
parts of the body. 

Treatment. As this complaint arises most frequently 
from exposure to cold wet weather, suitable shelter should 
be provided for animals so afflicted, and a drachm of gin- 
ger, or pimento, should be given to them, in gruel, or in 
their provender, twice a day. A stimulant, such as harts- 
horn and oil, or opodeldock, should be well rubbed over 
the part affected. 

Epilepsy and palsy are rare complaints in America; but 
rheumatism is not uncommon. These complaints will 
rarely occur in any country where suitable food and shel- 
ters are provided. 



290 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

SECTION XLIII. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. 

Sheep are liable to this affection, by swallowing or at- 
tempting to swallow apples or roots, either whole, or pieces 
of them, which are imperfectly masticated, or by gorging 
themselves with large quantities of oats or other grain. 

When this affection is caused by apples or roots, " the, 
sheep should have its head elevated, and held firmly be- 
tween one man's legs, whilst another passes the end of a 
flexible probang, carefully over the root of the tongue, into 
the pharynx, and thence down the oesophagus, forcing the 
obstructing morsel with it. Much care must be exercised 
in this operation ; the probang should be oiled, and forced 
onward with gentle firmness, so as not to lacerate or inflame 
the coats of the oesophagus. In the absence of that use- 
ful article, a cane or flexible rod having at one end a bulb 
formed of tow or smooth wood, and being well oiled, may 
be used as a probang." 

If these means should fail, the obstructing morsel should, 
if possible, by gentle manipulation and pressure upward, be 
raised up so far in the cesophagus that it may be extracted 
by the knife. For this purpose, clip off the wool from 
about the part where it lies, and around the neck, and then 
with the knife cut down upon the obstructing substance, 
through the skin and cesophagus, and remove it. Two or 
three stitches should then be passed through the edges of 
the wound in the oesophagus, which should be brought 
neatly together. The same must be done with the external 
skin, the ends of the threads which closed the oesophagus 
being brought through the outer wound. The neck should 
then be bandaged, but not too tightly ; and the wool above 
and below will keep the bandage firm. The sheep must be 
fed with mashes or gruel for a few days, or until the 
wound is closed ; and the stitches should be removed as 
soon as the edges of the wound plainly adhere. This is a 
very simple operation, and will rarely be injurious ; but the 
probang should always be first a-nd fairly tried. — (Youatt.) 
If the gullet is obstructed by oats or ojther grain, its pas- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 291 

sage downward may be facilitated by gently squeezing the 
oesophagus. 

MECHANICAL DISTENSION OF THE RUMEN. 

This disease is more commonly known in the United 
States, by the name of the stretches, which action is only 
a symptom of the disease. It almost never occurs to sheep, 
when they feed entirely upon grass, or other succulent food; 
but when they are confined to hay, or other dry food, and 
are deprived of water, it frequently happens that a larga 
quantity of food is collected in the stomach, and is packed 
in a hard, dry mass, so that it cannot pass out of the stomach; 
this is called by some persons, the drying of the manifolds. 

Symptoms. The sheep ceases to ruminate, and will 
alternately lie down and rise up at brief intervals, frequent- 
ly stretching itself, and refuses food of every kind ; some- 
times froths a little at the mouth. 

Treatment. Frequently a little common salt, a quarter 
or half an ounce, will relieve the animal in a short time. 
If this fails, a dose of two table spoonsfuls of castor oil, 
linseed oil, or hogs lard melted, will sometimes give relief. 
But the surest and safest medicine is yeast. Turn a half 
a pint of yeast, mixed with an equal quantity of lukewarm 
water, down the animal's throat, once in two or three hours 
until relief is obtained. This will produce a fermentation 
and dissolve the contents of the stomach, which will then 
pass off, without difficulty or danger. 

Prevention. A daily supply of succulent food, such as 
apples, potatoes or turnips, will prevent this difficulty. 
Also a plentiful supply of water is the great and most con- 
venient means of prevention ; and if this is provided it 
will almost never occur. 

II OVEN. 

When sheep are turned in upon wet clover fields, or oth- 
er indigestible grasses, at a time when their stomachs are 
empty, they are apt to feed too freely, and, consequently, 
their stomachs are often inflated with wind, which is pro- 
duced by the fermentation of these grasses in them. In 
such case, both the upward and downward orifices of the 
stomach are closed, so as to prevent the escape Of the wind 
or gas. All ruminating animals are subject to this affec- 



292 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

tion. Sheep are sometimes, though rarely, hoven, when 
eating hay in winter. In this disease, the rumen is disten- 
ded, so as to press upon the diaphraghm, and thus prevents 
the chest from expanding to admit the the air, and suffoca- 
tion is produced, so as to cause death. 

Treatment. Whether hoven is produced by eating clo- 
ver, or other indigestible grasses, or by hay, or other food 
of a bad quality, a quarter or half an ounce of salt fed to a 
sheep, or dissolved in water, and put down the throat, will 
frequently give relief. If this fails, give a gill of 
melted lard, and soon after, another gill: or linseed 
oil or sweet oil may be used in place of lard. 

It is stated in the Dublin Farmers' Gazette, that one or 
two doses of an egg-shell full of tar, put down the throat of 
an ox, will surely cure hoven. The same remedy is also 
useful to sheep. For this purpose, give to the sheep the 
tenth part of one of the above doses. Tar and common 
salt are both strongly antiseptic, and will check the fermen- 
tation which produces hoven. Repeat the doses, if neces- 
sary. 

If chemical remedies do not give relief, a hollow flexible 
probang may be used ; or, in lieu of it, a strong flexible 
wooden rod, with a round knob at the end of it. The knob 
should be covered with leather, or a piece of bladder, or 
smooth cloth, and should be oiled or greased. It may thrn 
be thrust down the throat, so as to allow the wind to es- 
cape. If it collects again, the operation may be repeated. 
In using the probang, the mouth may be kept open by 
means of a round stick, having a hole through it, so as to 
admit the passage of the probang. This operation should 
be conducted with care, so as not to injure the cesophagus, 
or meat-pipe. 

If the case proves desperate, the last remedy is, to plunge 
a knife through the skin into the rumen. The knife should 
be sharp at the point, and dull on the edge, so as not to 
make too broad a wound. The sheep will swell most on 
the left side, and a part of the swelling will be very protu- 
berant below the hip-bone. Into this protuberance, plunge 
the knife. The aperture must be kept open until all the 
wind is discharged ; and if it does not at once freely and 
rapidly escape, the sides of the belly should be moderately 
pressed, so as to force it out. After the wind has escaped, 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 293 

the wound may be drawn together by putting on an adhe- 
sive plaster. This is evidently a dangerous remedy, and 
should be used only in the last resort, as it is evident that 
the animal must sometimes die in consequence of the 
wound which is made. If the animal is fat, it may be well 
to butcher it at once. 

Prevention. The usual cause of this complaint is, that 
clover is a grass which is difficult of digestion, and when it 
is received into the stomachs of ruminating animals at a 
time when it is moistened with dew or rain, it goes into a 
state of fermentation before the gastric juice can operate 
upon it ; whereas, if it is received into the stomach without 
dew or rain upon it, the gastric juices will readily have 
their due influence on every part of it. Hence, in order to 
prevent this complaint, sheep should be turned" in upon clo- 
ver pastures only at such times of the day that the grass 
will be dry : and should it be necessary to turn them in 
upon such fields at other times, it will be well to keep them 
moving about for a little time when first turned in, so that 
they cannot gorge themselves too suddenly ; or they may 
be turned into them when well filled with other grasses. 

THE ROT. 

The Rot is a decay of the bowels : it is a complication 
of diseases, each of which, either directly or indirectly, 
arises from the same causes. This complication of disea- 
ses has never been fully explained by any author ; and as, 
in order to the proper management of sheep on the va- 
rious soils, and in the various seasons and climates which 
may occur to them, it will be necessary to have a correct 
knowledge of these internal diseases of sheep, it will be 
necessary to use more words than what have generally 
been used by writers upon this subject. 

No one has so graphically described the external causes 
and symptoms of these diseases, as the poet Virgil. I shall, 
therefore, insert an accurate translation of part of the 97 
last lines of the third book of his Georgies, or poetical 
works upon Agriculture, which were written about 50 years 
before the birth of Christ, as follows : 



204 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

" Not so frequent does the whirlwind, driving winter be- 
fore it, rush from the Ocean, as the plagues of cattle are 
numerous. Nor do diseases seize upon single bodies only ; 
but the whole summer's increase, the hope and the flock 
together, and the whole stock from their origin. If any 
one can see the aerial Alps, and the Norican Castles upon 
the hills, and the fields of Iapidian Timavus, and the 
realms of the shepherds, now, after so long a time deserted, 
he may then know. Here, formerly, a miserable tempest 
of the sky, began along with the disease, and it increased 
with the whole heat of autumn, and it put to death the whole 
race of cattle, and wild beasts ; seized upon the lakes ; in- 
fected the pastures with contagion. Nor was the manner 
of death simple ; but when the fiery thirst, driven into all 
their veins, had drawn together their miserable limbs, again 
the fluid liquor abounded, and drew to itself by piece 
meals, the bones collapsed in the course of the disease. — 
Oftentimes the victim, standing in the midst of the service 
to the gods, at the altar, while a woollen fillet, with a snowy 
label, is put around it, has fallen down about to die, in the 
midst of the servants waiting. Or if any priest had killed 
any one with a knife, neither do its fibres placed upon the 
altars burn, nor can an augur consulted return an answer : 
and the knives applied "are scarce tinged with blood, and 
the surface of the sand is hardly stained with meagre gore. 
Hence, the calves frequently die in luxuriant pastures, 
and yield up their lives_at the full cribs. Hence, madness 
comes upon the gentle dogs; and wheezing cough shakes 
the diseased swine, and chokes them in their swollen jaws. 

Non tarn creber ageiis hiemem ruit Eequore turbo, 

Quam multae pecudum pestes. iNec singula morbi, 

Corpora corripinut; sed tota restiva repente, 

Spemque gregemque sininl, cunctamque ab origine gentem. 

Turn sciat, serias Alpes, et Norica si quis 

Castella in tumulis, et Iapidis arva Timavi 

il JNunc quoque post tanto videat, desertaque regna, 

Pastorum, et longe saltus lateque vacantes. 

Hie quondam niorbo cosli miseranda coorta est 

Tempestas; totoque autumni incanduit a;stu; 

Et genus omne neci pecudum dedit. omne ferarum, 

Corripuitque lacus; infecit pabnla tabo. 

Nee via mortis erat simplex: sed ubi ignea venis, 

Omnibus acta sitis miseros adduxerat artus; 

Rursus abundabat fluidus liquor; omniaque in se, 

Ossa rainutatim in morbo collapsa trahebat. 

Soepe in honore Deum medio stans hostia ad aram," 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 295 

The miserable horse, though once victorious, falls down, 
unmindful of his exercise and grass ; is averse to water 
and frequently strikes the ground with his foot ; his ears 
hang down ; an intermitting sweat breaks out, and that cold 
to those about to die ; the skin becomes dry, and hard to 
the touch, resists the handling. 

" Lo, too, the bull, smoking under the oppressive plough- 
share, falls down and vomits from his mouth blood mingled 
with foam, and draws his last groans. 

"Neither does the wolf search round the sheep-folds for 
an ambuscade, nor does he prowl about the flocks at night ; 
a sharper care subdues him. The timid does and fugitive stags 
wander about, among the dogs and around the houses. — 
The air becomes unfavorable, even to the birds, and they 
falling give up their lives in the high clouds. 

" Nor does it avail any thing that the pastures are chan- 
ged : the usual arts of healing prove injurious ; the masters 
Chiron and Melampus ceased to prescribe. Pale Tisiphone, 
sent from Stygian darkness into light, rages, and drives 
disease and dismay before her. The streams, and dry 
banks, and sloping hills, resound with the bleating of 
flocks, and frequent lowings. And now by flocks she deals 



" Lanea dum nivea circumdatur infula vitta, 
Inter cunctantes cecidit moribunda ministros. 
Aut si quam ferro mactaverat ante sacerdos; 
Inde neque impositis ardent altaria fibris; 
Nee responsa potest consultus reddere vates; 
Ac vix suppositi tinguntur sanguine cultri, 
Summaque jejuna sanie infuscatur arena. 
Hinc leetis vituli vulgo moriuntur in herbis 
Et dulces animas plena ad praesepia reddunt. 
Hinc canibus blandis rabies venit; et quatit aegros 
Tussis anhela sues, ac faucibus angit obesis. 
Labitur infelix studiorum, atique iramemor herbae 
Victor equus; fontes avertitur, et pede terram 
Crebra ferit; demissag anres; incertus ibidem 
Sudor, et ille quidem mori turns fregidus; arit 
Pellis, et ad tactum tractanti dura resistit. 
Ecce autera duro fumans sub vomere taurus. 
Coucidit, et mistura spumjs vomit ore cruorem 
Extremosque ciet gemitus . 
Non lupus insidias explorat ovilia circura 
Nee gregibus nocturnus obambulat; acrior ilium 
Cura domat. Timidi damae, cei*vique fugaces, 
Nunc interque canes etcircum tecta vagantur, 
Ipsis est aer avibua non equus; et illae" 



296 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

destruction, and in the very stalls heaps up carcasses, over- 
turned by the foul contagion; until they learn to hide 
them in pits, and cover them with earth. 

Neither was there any use for their skins ; nor could any 
person cleanse their viscera with water, or purge them 
with fire ; nor shear their fleeces, eaten through by disease 
and uncleanliness ; nor touch the putrid stuffs. But if any 
one tried the odious vestments, burning pimples and filthy 
sweat overspread his noisome limbs. Then, no long tinv; 
intervening, the cursed fire preyed upon his infected 
limbs." 

Those who remember the summers of 1335, '36 and 
'37, may recollect, that the influence of the weather upon 
animals, was much the same as above described. Long 
continued hot and wet weather combined, ever will pro- 
duce such pestilences. In such seasons, the grasses grow 
rapidly, and are deficient in their earthy salts, and the pores 
of the skins of animals are partly closed by moisture, so 
that their bowels are oppressed with bad food, and excre- 
mentitious matter, and they sink with disease. And much 
the same thing happens yearly, where flocks are pastured 
upon wet lands ; therefore, a very particular knowledge 
of this complication of diseases is necessary in all cli- 
mates. 

Symptoms of Rot. The animal pines away, and appears 
languid and dull ; is troubled with fabulence ; the white of 
the eyes, and the eye-lids, if lifted up, are pale and hardly 

Precipites alta vitam sub nube relinqunt. 

Preterea, Dec jam mutari pabula refert; 
Qaasitaeque nocentartes: cessere mgistri 
Phillyrides Chiron, Amythaoniusque Melampus. 
Saevit et in lucem Stygiis emissa tenebris 
Pallida Tisiphone; morbos agit ante metumque. 
Balatu pecornm, et crebris mugitibus amnes, 
Arentesque sonant ripae, collesque supini: 
Jaraque catervatim dat stragem, atque aggerat ipsis 
In stabulis turpi dilapsa cadavera tabo; 
Donee hurao tegere, ac foveis abscondere discunt. 
Nam neque erat corns usus ; nee viscera quisquam 
Aut undis abolere potest, aut vincere flamma ; 
Nee tondere quidem morbo illuvieque peresa 
Vellera, nee telas possunt attlngere putres. 
Verum etiam, invisos si quis tentarat amictus 
Ardentes papulae, atque immundus olentia sudor 
Membra sequebatur ; nee longo deinde moranti 
Tempore, contactos artussacer ignis edebat." 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 297 

show the veins ; the caruncle of the eye appears yellowish ; 
the skin loses its carnation color and looks paleish ; the 
tongue becomes livid and furred* In the course of the dis- 
ease, the wool frequently becomes loose, so as to be easily 
separated from the pelt ; and some part of the skin is often 
mottled with round reddish or brownish spots, and, in some 
cases, the whole skin of the back becomes brown ; the 
sheep shrinks, and becomes flaccid about the loins : some- 
times it has dropsical swellings, which are most frequent in 
the peritonaeum, or under the jaws ; sometimes it has a 
cough : and diarrhoea is frequently one of the symptoms, 
but not always : at death, the animal more generally sinks 
away gradually, and dies off with very little pain. 

Causes of the Rot. — These are principally of two dis- 
tinct kinds. One cause is, the acids, which are produced 
by the fermentation of grass or food in the stomach. 

The otner cause is, the mechanical action of sharp-edg- 
ed grasses, irritating and cutting the mucus membranes of 
the stomach and intestines. 

That kind of rot which is produced in the manner first 
mentioned, will be first treated of, being that which is more 
generally known as the rot. 

When the digestive powers of the animal are weak, or 
the food is of such a quality as to be difficult of digestion, 
fermentation takes place in the bowels, and acids are pro- 
duced. "Of all the food," says Blacklock, " on which 
sheep can possibly be kept, none is known to act so dele- 
leriously as grass which has sprouted quickly." This re- 
mark is well known to be most perfectly correct, and it af- 
fords a key to this complication of diseases called rot. — 
Such young grasses contain a large proportion of saccha- 
ric matter, alkalies, and alkaline salts,* and, at the same 
time, are deficient as to their earths and earthy salts : th&y 
are in a state of rapid preparation for the formation of tkreir 
grain or seed. Hence, in such a state, they readily fer- 
ment and produce acids. Sugar ferments and produces 
acids in the stomach more readily than any other kind of 
food. Underneath are inserted the analysis of sugar, and 
of sundry acids, as follows : 

* See analysis of oats, by Mr. Fromberg, in the Appendix, 



Hydrogen. 


Oxygen. 


6.37 


51.05 


0.24 


66.53 


6.35 


46.82 


3.95 


59.88 


3.80 


54.83 


3.51 


55.02 



298 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

Carbon. 
Sugar, 42.58 

Oxalic acid, or acid of sugar, 33.22 
Acetic acid, 46.83 

Tartaric, 36.16 

Citric, 41.36 

Malic, 41.47 

By this table, it will ,be seen that the constituents of su- 
gar, and of each of these acids, are precisely the same ; 
they only vary in the proportions of those ingredients. Of 
course, the saccharine matter of grasses, may, by indiges- 
tion and fermentation, be changed into any of these acids. 
Ure says, in his dictionary of chemistry, "From the gen- 
eral phenomena, it may be concluded, that a vegetable sub' 
stance, heated moderately with potash, gives oxalic acid* 11 
Now, as potash is ever present in the grasses, whenever it 
is superabundant, the heat of the stomach will readily form 
oxalic acid. 

The manner in which these acids act, is, that they irri- 
tate or erode the mucus membranes, or inner lining of the 
stomach and intestines : they are also partially absorbed, 
and pass through the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands, 
along with the chyle : and abscesses, or cavities, are form- 
ed in the lacteal ducts, which sink through the muscles of 
the intestinal canal ; and the mesentery glands are enlarg- 
ed, and sometimes become schirhus or hard. And when 
these muscles of the bowels are affected by abscesses, as 
above mentioned, the tissue of those muscles is so much 
relaxed that the bowels are no longer able to perform the 
usual peristaltic or vermicular motion, and sink down into 
the lower part of the belly, from absolute weakness, ^n 
such case, the parts between the hips and the short fros 
fall in : the sheep shrinks. And when these ducts and 
glands are injured in this manner, the chyle will be impurely 
received, or will utterly cease to be received through the 
parts which are decayed ; and if a very large proportion of 
these organs is injured, the animal must die, for the very 
portals of life are closed. I have dissected very many 
which died with this affection, and never have examined 



* This principle is worthy of particular attention. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 299 

any one in which the lacteal ducts were not defective. In 
lambs 6 or 8 months old, the mesentery glands appear most 
enlarged ; in full grown sheep the lacteal ducts appear to 
be most defective. And the lacteal ducts and mesentery 
glands are the parts which first fail, and give rise to this 
complication of diseases called rot. If only the mucus 
membranes of the stomach and bowels, or if only the liver 
or lungs are somewhat affected, there will be a chance for 
restoring the animal ; but if the lacteal ducts and mesen- 
tery glands are much defective, they can never be restor- 
ed ; the animal must perish for want of nutriment. If only 
a small portion of these organs are injured, the animal may 
sometimes be fatted off and killed. And the state of these 
organs may be nearly known, by the appearance of the 
parts between the hips and the short ribs; if, with plenty 
of food before the animal, those parts sink in more than 
usual, those organs are surely injured. 

But in order fully to understand the effect of these acids, 
it will be necessary to take a view of them. All the four 
acids last mentioned in the table, may, and doubtless do, 
pass through sheep and other animals, and cause diarrhoea, 
which is frequently continued for a considerable time with- 
out rotting them. But the oxalic is a powerful acid, and is 
a strong vegetable poison. If it is formed in the stomach 
or intestines, in any considerable quantity, it cannot passr 
through them harmlessly. That it is so formed, is certain. 
" In the so-called mulberry calculi, or stone in the bladder 
of the human body, we find oxalat of lime, says Liebig, 
and always in persons in whom, from want of exercise, or 
from other causes, the supply of oxygen has been dimin- 
ished." Such persons are ever subject to indigestion and 
acidity of the stomach. Under such circumstances, we see 
that oxalic acid is formed in the human body. 

That oxalic acid is formed in the bowels of the sheep, 
will be apparent by the round reddish or brownish spots 
which are seen on the skins of sheep affected with rot. 

Unfortunately, the oxalic acid has been taken as a medi- 
cine by a number of persons in England, in consequence 
of their mistaking it for Epsom or Glauber salts. And I in- 
sert, from Beck's Medical Jurisprudence, an account of the 
effects which it had upon them, and upon other animals, as 
it will show its properties, as follows : 



300 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS* 

1st.-— The earliest symptom was, a burning pain in the 
stomach. 

2d. — Vomiting a dark, sanguinolent fluid, which com- 
monly continues till death. 

3d. — When life was prolonged for a few hours, pain in 
the bowels and'purging followed, and the fceces were mixed 
with blood. 

4th. — Along with these symptoms, was a sunken coun- 
tenance, and pulse imperceptible at the wrist, 

5th. — In a case in which Dr. Arrowsmith attended, the 
patient had a deep red mottled appearance of the skin, in 
circular patches, and also leaches, applied to the stomach 
six hours after the poison was taken, were poisoned; they 
fastened well to the skin, but on touching one, it fell mo- 
tionless and dead. 

6th. — In Mr. Hebbs' case, the stomach appeared as if 
scalded, and contained a pint of dark-colored fluid, owing 
to the blood contained in it. 

7th. — In Mr. Fraser's case, the villous coats of the sto- 
mach were completely destroyed ; though in some parts 
they appeared entire, on examination it was found to be 
soft, and easily rubbed off with the finger; and the small 
intestines exhibited similar appearances. 

Experiments were made with this acid, by Messrs. Chris- 
tison and Coindet, upon animals, and it was found — 

1st. — That its effects on the bowels of mankind, and on 
those of animals, were similar. 

2d. — They noticed that a small quanity of acid, when 
diluted, destroys an animal sooner than when concentrated, 
[one-third of an ounce is sufficient to destroy the life of a 
man — 12 grains a rabbit.'] 

3d. — The oxalates of potash and ammonia do not cor- 
rode, but they produce tetanus, (locked jaw,) and coma, 
(stupidity,) like the diluted oxalic acid. Messrs. Christison 
and Coindet found death to ensue to animals in a few min- 
utes from either of these oxalates ; and the conclusions 
drawn from these observations were, that this acid acts 
through the medium of absorption. 

It is impossible not to see the resemblance which such 
deaths of mankind have to those of cattle dying off with 
red-water, (called bloody murrain in the United States,) 
the symptoms of which are before described by Virgil. — 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 301 

Sheep, drying with braxy, often appear as if affected by ox- 
alat of potash : they often appear to be much affected in 
the jaws, and grate their teeth ; and in cases of rot, the cir- 
cular red or potash colored spots, which often appear upon 
their skins, show that both the oxalic acid and the oxalat 
of potash have helped to destroy them ; oxalic acid is form- 
ed in the stomach, and potash being always present in the 
grasses, oxalat of potash is readily formed. It is absorbed 
along with the chyle, and passes through the lacteal ducts 
and mesentery glands, into a duct which passes along by 
the sides of the back bone, and the chyle enters into a large 
vein, just previous to its arrival at the heart. 

Along by the back bone is the place where these circular 
potash colored spots first appear on the skins of sheep. As 
the disease advances, these spots gradually become more 
numerous, and are scattered over the skin of the back and 
sides ; and sometimes the whole skin of the back, on strong 
sheep, becomes brown from this cause. When cattle are 
affected with chronic red-water, or merely indigestion, their 
skins often become dappled or brown, in the same manner. 
— (See Youatt on Cattle, page 508.) 

The effect of the oxalic acid upon animals is similar in 
one other respect, viz : it salivates them. 

In the Massachusetts Ploughman, for 1844, B. F. Wil- 
bur states, " that he purchased a few hundreds of hay and 
sorrel, nearly equal quantities of each. In a day or two, the 
horse began to slaver excessively. He before fed him on clear 
clover, and also on other hay, without any such effect. — 
Now, in this case, the oxalic acid, which is the acid found 
in the sorrel, and which gives it such an agreeable taste, is 
evidently the article which produced the salivation. 

But it is well known that horses, feeding on the hay of 
aftermath clover, or on clover grass, are salivated by either 
of them. Cattle, also, on such pastures, are frequently af- 
fected in the same manner. In braxy, the sheep is fre- 
quently salivated : it either froths or drools at the mouth ; 
and even the hog is sometimes salivated by clover. — (See 
Meases' Archives of Useful Knowledge, Vol. I, page 398.) 

The true reason why clover salivates animals seems to be, 
that it contains a very large proportion of potash, and, conse- 
quently, by fermentation in the stomach, it readily produ- 
ces oxalic acid. And it is evidently of no consequence 



302 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

whether the oxalic acid is taken into the stomach directly, 
as in the sorrel, or whether it is formed in the stomach by 
the fermentation of clover, or other grasses, the effect will 
be the same. The dog afflicted with rabies is also saliva- 
ted, and animals afflicted with rabies present the same hag- 
gard countenance as the ox afflicted with red-water. 

Similar seasons seem to produce these diseases in 
these different animals ; and the part which the oxalic 
acts in the formation of deadly and contagious diseases, is 
yet to be ascertained by observation. The oxalic acid in- 
flames and erodes the bowels and produces salivation : the 
oxalat of potash produces spasmodic action of the jaws, 
urinary organs, &c, and these two ingredients seem to be 
the causes of some of the most fatal diseases to which 
graminivorous animals are liable, such as the red-water 
and murrain of cattle. 

Hence, also, the oxalic acid is to man the probable cause 
of the water-brash, the cholera, inflammation of the bow- 
els, &c* 

We will now compare the internal appearance of sheep 
dying with rot or braxy, with those of mankind poisoned 
by oxalic acid. 

1st. — On dissection, wherever the potash colored spots 
were quite numerous, I have found the mucus membranes, 
or inner lining of the stomach, pylorus, and duodenum 
were very highly inflamed, and of a dark red color, and 
soft and pulpy ; and sometimes, in such cases, the inflam- 
mation appears to extend the whole length of the bowels. 
This agrees with what Sir G. S. McKenzie and Blacklock 
say. 

McKenzie says : " A young sheep was observed in the 
morning not to eat, and seemed remarkably languid — in the 
afternoon was brought home gasping for breath ; pulse very 
quick; eyes blood-shot; skin remarkably hot. It was 
bled: but no blood would run. In an hour it died. On 
opening the body, the fourth stomach was found mortified 
over all its upper and fore part, which was extended to 

* Many symptoms produced by a large dose of oxalic acid are similar 
to those of Cholera; 1 — A burning pain in the stomach; 2 — Vomiting and 
purging; 3— Spasms; 4 — A sinking of the pulse, and a sunken counte- 
nance: 5 — Oilines? of the blood. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 303 

where it joins the bowels, which were quite red ; the inter- 
nal coat of them all was loosely attached." 

Blacklock says, as to braxy : " Though many parts are 
commonly implicated, there is every reason for believing 
the fourth stomach or reid to be primarily affected : inflam- 
matory appearances and mortification are visible on its 
coats, especially at the pyloric extremity. The inner coat 
presents a blackish red and gelatinous appearance : the en- 
tire bowel being soft and pulpy, and permeable to the fin- 
ger." 

Here we see that the effects of the oxalic acid upon the 
bowels of man and beast are almost precisely simi- 
lar : and it may be here observed that the reason 
why the pylorus and duodenum are more affected 
with inflammation than the bowels, appears to be, 
that it is here that the food is first strongly Com- 
pressed in passing from the stomach to the lower 
bowels, and, of course, those parts are most expo- 
sed to the influence of the acids which are contained 
in the food. 

2d. — As to the appearance of the intestinal canal : 
The mucus membranes line the whole of the intes-i 
tinal canal of the animal from the mouth to the 
rectum. When in a healthy state, they are of a 
whitish color, with a tint of red, and are not easily 
eroded. The mucus membranes discharge mucus 
into the bowels to lubricate them, and the lacteal ducts 
receive chyle into the general circulation ; and the 
mouths of these lacteal ducts and mucus membranes 
are all pointed towards the interior of the intestinal 
canal. When abscesses are formed in the intesti- 
nal tube, by which the lacteal ducts are injured,, 
most of them are of the size of half a pea or bean, 
with the bulging side outward ; and sometimes the 
intestinal tube has these abscesses bulging out, va- 
riously scattered over it, through its whole length, 
in cases of the rot. The annexed figure represents 
a section of the intestinal tube, showing how it is 
affected by abscesses, in cases of the rot. 

3d. — The mesentery glands, in a healthy state.g 
are very nearly of the same color as the kidnev 



304 DISEASES 07 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

when enlarged or diseased, upon being cut open, they are 
generally of a pale reddish brown color near the outside ; 
at other times, when very badly diseased, they are of a 
whitish color, are much distended, and are indurated with 
calcareous salts, like tubercles. 

4th. — The affections of the other parts of the bowels 
appear to be, generally speaking, merely consequent upon 
an impure state of the blood. 

As to the lungs, it may be remarked that so far as my 
observation extends, not more than one in four or five of 
those whose bowels were decayed, had any cough, or any 
appearance of diseased lungs upon dissection : and I have 
taken particular notice as to this point. It is not strange 
that, in Britain, the lungs of sheep or other animals should 
be much affected ; for their misty atmosphere is very op- 
pressive to the lungs. Neither is it strange that lambs 
should be dropped which are diseased in the lungs; for the 
blood of the mother nourishes the lamb; and if the blood 
of the mother is bad, it may create diseases of the lungs 
in both dam and progeny precisely alike ; and Sir G. S. 
McKenzie observes, that lambs are sometimes dropped with 
tubercles upon their lungs. 

5th. — The livers of sheep are generally more affected by 
tubercles and inflammation than the lungs ; and the reason 
seems to be, that after the transformation of tissues is com- 
pleted, by the blood passing through them, the blood is con- 
veyed by the veins to the liver, in its most impure or high- 
ly carbonated state : and as, in our very warm seasons, the 
lungs do not, in all cases, fully oxygenize the blood, the 
liver suffers from the imperfect action of the lungs.* In 
order to illustrate this principle, I shall state the case of a 
Merino ewe dying aged 16 years. On dissection, there 
was no inffammation of the mucus membranes ; the lungs, 
kidneys, and liver were sound ; the liver, upon being cut, 
was sound like that of a middle-aged sheep; the molar 
teeth were good: and this animal was never known to be 
sick with coryza or cough, and died off without the least 
apparent pain ; and the only parts which were found defec- 
tive, were, the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands. The 
true reason why this animal attained such an age, seems to 

* See Liebig's Animal Chemistry, page 17. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 305 

be, that it had a large, broad, and deep chest, which con- 
tained lungs which were so large as to be able to impart a 
full supply of oxygen to the blood, which passed through 
them, and thereby to save the liver, which is a very impor- 
tant organ in the digestive process. 

6th. — The kidneys are sometimes a little enlarged, 
though seldom ; but are frequently flabby, and decayed in 
substance, so as to cause dropsical effusions from want of 
their full action. 

7th. — Dropsical effusions and hydatids are common 
symptoms in the last stages of the rot — -especially under the 
jaws, in the peritonceum, and near the kidneys. 

I shall now state what properly constitutes the rot, and 
the treatment. 

In the rot or gradual decay of the bowels, there is a 
chronic inflammation of the mucus membranes of some 
part or parts of the intestinal tube, which is frequently not 
very severe; the tongue, though furred, may show little or 
no sign of inflammation, and, at the same time, the lacteal 
ducts and mesentery glands are gradually decaying, in con- 
sequence of this inflammation ; nutriment cannot pass into 
the lacteal ducts through the inflamed parts, nor through 
those parts which are injured by abscesses, and, conse- 
quently, the sheep pines away by degrees. This is, prop- 
erly speaking, the rot; it is very similar to the dyspepsia 
of man, and the complication of diseases which ensues, is 
the result of this indigestion. 

The same effect is produced when man is affected with 
inflammation of the mucus membranes. Dr. John Mack- 
intosh, of Edinburgh, says : " Sometimes the mesenteric 
glands are affected, (i. e., with tubercles,) but I have never 
seen them so, without finding the corresponding part of the 
mucus membrane inflamed, more generally extensively 
ulcerated." 

Treatment of the Rot. — When man is afflicted with 
chronic inflammation cf the mucus membranes of the bow- 
els in this manner, it has been found that mineral water, 
which is strongly impregnated with gypsum, (Plaster of 
Paris,) is one of the best remedies for this complaint ; and 
mankind are seldom afflicled with dysentery in those districts 
where the waters are made hard by gypsum ; and most 
hard waters are of this description : and dysentery is an 



306 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

acute inflammation of the mucus membranes of the lower 
parts of the bowels ; and it is only when lime and gypsum 
are deficient in upland grasses, that graminivorous animals, 
feeding upon them, are afflicted with inflammations of the 
mucus membranes of the bowels. The reason for this ef- 
fect appears to be, that inflammation is the beginning of de- 
composition ; gypsum is the natural astringent of the bow- 
els both to man and beast, and its powerful antiseptic qual- 
ities arrest the decomposition which begins in the parts in- 
flamed, and nature restores them to a healthy action. 

Therefore, when the bowels of sheep are more or less 
decayed, nothing better can be done for them than to give 
them a full proportion of gypsum and lime in their condi- 
ments, and a suitable proportion of tar or pitch along with 
them ; and if any one does not incline to eat ashes and 
gypsum, a cleaner mixture may be made with one part 
slacked lime or chalk, two parts gypsum, and two or three 
parts common salt : such a mixture will not be refused. 

In winter, sheep, whose bowels are in any wise decayed, 
should be kept warm and dry, and should be provided with 
a supply of well-cured hay, and a moderate supply of grain : 
but special care should be used not to feed them so much 
as to scour them. 

This course will, in most cases, arrest the disease, and 
prevent any farther decay of the lacteal ducts and mesen- 
tery glands, and will take away ail diseased action, so that 
such animals may, with propriety, be fattened and eaten, 
in all cases where they can be made fat : but it is seldom 
that medicine can restore them to their original sound state, 
when their bowels are much decayed. If any such ani- 
mals fully recover, as they sometimes will, the round po- 
tash colored spots on their skins, will, in many cases, dis- 
appear. But where the bowels of such animals have been 
much injured, these spots are very apt to remain : and it is 
only in summer that such animals can be fattened, by al- 
lowing them good pasture and a little grain daily, with a 
full supply of condiments. 

ROT PRODUCED BY ACORNS. 

There is another species of rot, which is produced by 
their eating acorns. In ordinary rot, the disease arises 
from inflammation and relaxation ; but in this kind of rot, 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 307 

the disease proceeds from their too great astringency ; the 
tannin, or tannic acid, or gallic acid, astringes the bowels, 
so that portions of them can no longer receive the chyle 
through the lacteal ducts, into the system ; and consequent- 
ly, animals, thus afflicted, pine away and die, much in the 
same manner as in the kind of rot last mentioned. Con- 
siderable numbers of sheep and cattle, in Mahoning coun- 
ty, Ohio, have been injured in this manner. Sheep 
drovers frequently have their flocks injured by acorns. 
Also, hogs, when butchered, frequently show that their 
bowels are injured by them. Tusser, an old British writer 
upon husbandry, speaking of acorns, says : 

" Some left among bushes shall pleasure thy swine, 
For fear of a mischief keep acorns from jfiCine." 

Small quantities of acorns may be useful and wholesome 
food for sheep or cattle. But special care should be used, 
that sheep be not allowed to range upon oak wood-lands, 
where they can have a full supply of acorns ; for it is not 
probable, that anything can restore the bowels, when they 
are astringed or tanned in this manner. 

ROT PRODUCED BY ASTRINGENT WATERS. 

In New Holland, it has been found that astringent wa- 
ters produce rot. 

The following is substantially what was communicated 
by Mr. Cheatham, to the Veterinarian, (a paper printed 
in London.) " In New Holland, where water in summer 
is frequently scarce, the water holes are usually surround?- 
ed with trees, which, during a continued drought, shed 
their leaves into the water. Now, while any large body ol 
water remains in the holes, the effects upon the animal, 
arising from the infusion, will not be perceptible ; but when 
during the excessive heats of summer, the quantity of wa* 
ter becomes reduced, its powerful astringent effects will 
be discovered, in the disease, and consequent death of ma- 
ny of the flock." 

ROT PRODUCED BY ALUM WATER. 

Mr. Cheatham also says, " There is another disease, not 
unlike the above, to which sheep are liable, arising from a 
somewhat similar cause ; this is the drinking of water im- 
pregnated with al una. I was informed h y -a gentleman, 



308 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

that, on one occasion, a very large proportion of a flock 
died off; a circumstance for which he could in no wise ac- 
count. There was no external sign of illness, and yet they 
died. This induced him to subject the carcass of one of 
them to a regular anatomical process, which pointed out 
the stomach as the seat of disease. And from other cir- 
cumstances^he came to the conclusion that the evil was 
caused by the water. He accordingly tested the water from 
holes on the run, and discovered one strongly impregnated 
with alum. The mystery was elucidated ; the flock was 
removed, and the mortality ceased. 

In the above cases of alum water and other astringent 
waters, it seems that their bowels must have been opera- 
ted upon, much in the same manner as by their eating 
acorns. And the principle by which we should be gov- 
erned, is, to deprive them of any access to such causes 
of disease. 

ROT PRODUCED BY SHARP-EDGED GRASSES. 

The second principal cause of rot is, the pasturage of 
sheep upon a kind of grass called scour-grass, or horse- 
tailed grass, (equisetum hyemale). There are seven spe- 
cies of this grass ; they usually grow on marshy lands. 
In America they grow more commonly in bunches from 12 
to 24 inches high ; their leaves rise up, and, near the top, 
bend over like a horse's tail ; and, from this circumstance, 
they take their name. Their edges are sharp like a sickle. 
When sheep feed upon such grasses, their sharp edges irri- 
tate, and cut the mucus membranes and lacteal ducts of 
their intestines mechanically, so as to cause inflammation 
and decay of those parts; so that, eventually, the animal 
dies off precisely in the same manner, as if the inflamma- 
tion had been caused by acids. Cattle and horses are fre- 
quently injured and destroyed by these grasses, in the same 
manner, and on examination their stomachs are found cut 
and lacerated. — (Farmer's Encyclopedia.) 

Any other kind of sharp-edged grasses will, of course, 
produce the same effects. 

Blacklock treats of this kind of rot, under the name of 
pining. He says : " The name has arisen, from the rap- 
id wasting, which is a prominent symptom of this com- 
plaint. A farm can hardly be subject to a more ruinous 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 309 

distemper, as the same sheep will be affected by it, year 
after year, and if a ewe be attacked during autumn, it is 
ten to one she will not have a lamb in the ensuing season. 
Pining only seizes on thriving sheep, preferring young ones, 
those, more especially, of the larger breeds, and is confin- 
ed to farms where the land is principally micaceous, and 
covered with occasional stripes otbenty grasses. A whole 
flock sickens at once, their usual alacrity seems to have de* 
serted them, their eyes are dull, and the whole flock seems 
weary and languid. At a more advanced stage, the wool 
acquires a bluish tinge, the blood becomes thick, diminish- 
ing in quantity, and the muscles assume a bloodless ap- 
pearance. The bowels are constipated, and to this the fe- 
verish symptoms apparently owe their origin. If the dis- 
ease progresses, death will ensue in about a month." 

Mr. Spooner says : " The farms most liable to this dis- 
nare are those dry grassy farms, abounding in flats and 
ridges of white and flying bent ; these are the bane of the 
flocks. On the genuine pining farms, the disease is more 
fatal in dry, than in wet seasons : and most so at that sea- 
son when, by the influence of the sun, the plants are less 
juicy, or in autumn, when the gaasses which have pushed 
to seed become less succulent : consequently, June and 
September are the most deadly months." 

The true reason why these grasses are so injurious at 
this time is, that when they are ripened and dried, their 
edges become very hard and sharp ; they then more read- 
ily cut and irritate the mucus membranes of the stomach 
and intestines, and produce inflammation in them ; and 
the feverish symptoms are produced by this inflamma- 
tion. 

From the description given by Blacklock, it is ev- 
ident that sheep ■• thus afflicted, pine away, precisely in 
the same manner, as if afflicted by rot, which is pro- 
duced by the grasses having too much saccharine mat- 
ter in them. It is the inflammation of the mucus mem- 
branes, which causes the decay of the other parts of 
the bowels : it is the beginning of the decay ; and the effect 
produced is the same, whether the inflammation is pro- 
duced by acids, or by the mechanical action of sharp-edg- 
ed grasses. 

Treatment. If the bowels of the animal appear to be 



310 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIYE ORGANS. 

constipated, the first object should be, to obtain a free dis- 
charge from them, by means of purgatives and injections, 
if necessary. For this purpose, oils will be the best med- 
icines, as they will, in some measure, sheath the bowels 
from the edges of the grass ; one or two ounces of linseed 
oil, hog's lard melted, or castor oil, may be given to each 
animal ; or the same quantity of Epsom or Glauber salts, or 
common salt instead of oils. 

Animals afflicted in this manner should be removed to 
pastures of a better quality, and the same medicines and 
condiments should be given to them, as for the kind of rot 
first treated of. And these will be sufficient for them : that 
is, no better treatment can be used for them. 

I fed a mixture of one part gypsum, and two parts com- 
mon salt, to calves whose bowels were injured by horse tail 
grasses, with good effect. 

BRAXY. 

This disease is also sometimes called red water, in Eng- 
land, from the appearance of their urine. It is an acute 
inflammation of the mucus membranes, (or inner lining) 
of the stomach, pylorus, duodenum, and a portion of 
the intestinal canal next immediately adjoining ; but the 
stomach and the duodenum are generally most affected. 
This disease is produced, either by acids or by sharp edged 
grasses. 

BRAXY PRODUCED BY ACIDS. 

Symptoms. In the commencement of this disease, the 
animal will appear uneasy, lying down and rising up fre- 
quently, loathing food and drinking often ; or will stand 
with its head down and its back raised ; sometimes, when 
fever sets in, will stand with its head stretched out, and 
its mouth open and panting ; at other times will froth or 
drool at the mouth ; the pulse will be quick and strong ; 
the respiration rapid and laborious ; the belly sometimes 
is much swollen ; the urine is sometimes totally stopped 
by strangury, or is small in quantity, and is high colored 
and sometimes bloody. Sometimes the animal groans and 
grates its teeth, as if much affected in the jaws and pain- 
ed in the bowels ; and often its back is dappled with red 
or brown spots, as in cases of the rot, If the disease is 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 311 

not arrested, the feverish symptoms will increase, until 
the animal dies ; and death will generally ensue within 
a week, unless a recovery is obtained. 

When the appearances are as above stated, if the ani- 
mal's mouth be opened, the tip of the tongue, and the 
edges of it will be found to be considerably redder than 
the middle of it; and this is a very sure way of judging 
as to the extent of the inflammation of the mucus mem- 
branes, either in this disease or in dysentery. 

On dissection, the mucus membranes of the parts affect- 
ed are found highly inflamed, and of a dark reddish color, 
and doubtless the oxalic acid is the principal agent, which 
acts so powerfully upon them ; as in such cases, they fre- 
quently drool or froth at the mouth, especially lambs or 
yearlings. 

Either young grasses which have sprouted quickly, or 
old frost-bitten grass, most readily produce the disease : 
such grasses readily ferment and produce acids in the sto- 
mach. 

Treatment of Braxy. As soon as the diseased state of 
the animal is noticed, medicine should be promptly admin- 
istered ; give one or two ounces of Epsom or Glauber salts, 
(or common salt, when neither of the other kinds are on 
hand,) combined with one-tenth of an ounce of chalk, in 
order to neutralize the acids which are ever present in such 
cases. If the animal is very feverish, bleed a half pint or 
pint from the fore leg. If the medicine does not operate 
within two or three hours, repeat the dose of salt and 
chalk ; and, if necessary, make use of injections, in order 
to produce an evacuation of the bowels. As soon as this is 
effected, mix common salt, gypsum, and chalk, an equal 
proportion of each, and give to the animal one-third or one- 
fourth of an ounce of this mixture two or three times daily, 
mixed in with gruel of wheaten shorts, or other finely 
ground provender. If the weather is unfavorable, place the 
animal under shelter, and furnish the necessary hay or 
grass. Pursue this course until the animal is recovered so 
as to join the flock — enlarging the doses, if necessary. 

A single case of severe braxy was cured by giving amixture 
of equal quantities of gypsum and common salt, in portions 
of one-third of an ounce once in four hours, during day- 



312 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

light, for two. successive days, without the use of any otht 
medicine : its effects were excellent. 

If the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands are sound, the 
animal may generally be restored, especially if the disease 
is early discovered. 

As the appearance of animals afflicted with braxy is not 
always precisely alike, I shall state cases which will show 
the nature of the disease. In the Cultivator, printed at Al- 
bany, for the year 1844, are cases stated by Mr. Pierre V. 
Miller, of Shawanyunk, N. Y. June 9th, 1836, he turned 
a flock of one hundred ewes, with their lambs, into a field 
of red clover, which was in full bloom. They remained in 
the field 1 1 days, during which time 25 were taken sick, 
and 19 died. 

" The first symptom of disease was, that they reeled and 
staggered back for a while ; after which, they lay insensi- 
ble until death, which generally happened in an hour or 
two. 

" On searching the field, he found nothing poisonous but 
two small stools of elder, which should not be there. Ho 
found, however, that the strips of grass on the old sward, 
along the fences, and elsewhere, which had not been 
ploughed and stocked with clover, were gnawed close to 
the earth ; and the sheep showed their dislike to the clover, 
by their twice breaking out of the field over a good fence. 

A post-mortem examination was made of two carcasses, 
and no unusual appearance was found, except that the 
paunch luas very red, and much inflamed ; there was no 
distension, as in bloat." In these cases, the inflammation 
of the stomach shows the effect of the oxalic acid, and 
their stupidity, the effect of the oxalat of potash. And it 
should be observed, that in those cases, braxy was produ- 
ced by the clover when in full bloom ; the very time at 
which it contains the largest proportion of saccharine mat- 
ter, and, of course, most readily produces oxalic acid. 

Other cases are mentioned by J. C.,in the Genesee Far- 
mer for 1§38. He says : " The first symptoms of the dis- 
ease are, a dumpishness — not inclined to eat — not even to 
lick salt— -froth a little at the mouth, and run at the nose ; 
remain in this state a few hours, when death ensues. On 
dissection, the animals appeared full of clotted blood, so 
much so, that we should suppose that the whole of the 



DISEASES 0? THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 313 

wood had left the veins, and found it3 way to the interior of 
trie body."* In these cases, the frothing at the mouth shows 
the influence of the oxalic acid, and their dumpishness that 
of the oxalat of potash. 

BRAXY PRODUCED BY SHARP-EDGED GRASSES. 

When such grasses are freely devoured by sheep, the 
irritation is frequently so great, that the animal often dies 
off, in the course of a few hours, in consequence of the in- 
flammation produced. 

Symptoms. When distressed by eating these grasses, 
they throw up, and shake their heads about, showing there- 
by the irritation and pain which afflicts them within, and 
the difficulty of raising their cuds, in consequence of the 
sharp edges of the grasses. In such cases, the fever will 
be intense, and will soon carry them off, unless they are 
relieved ; and, therefore, medicine should be promptly ad- 
ministered. 

Treatment. In such cases, a dose of two ounces of lin- 
seed oil, castor oil, or hog's lard melted, and turned down 
their throats, will doubtless be the best purgatives which 
can be given them ; the oils will help to sheath the bow- 
els, and the grasses will pass off with less injury to them 
than if Epsom or other salts are used. But, in such cases, 
delay will be dangerous, and the best purgatives on hand 
should be used. After which, feed them with wheat flour 
porridge, or wheaten shorts, along with hay or grass, until 
they are restored ; giving them occasionally a little salt 
and chalk or gypsum, with their porridge or provender ; and 
repeating the doses of oil, if necessary. 

Cases of this kind of braxy happened in Washington Co., 
Pa., a few years since. A drover turned a drove of 1200 sheep 
into a pasture, in which was marshy ground on one side of 
the pasture, on which was an abundance of horse-tail gras- 
ses. As the sheep had been driven during the day, and 
were hungry, they fed upon these grasses freely, and in 
the course of the night, one-half of them were affected 
with braxy, and 150 died. Instead of giving purgative 
medicines, the drover gave them pepper and whiskey, 

* These cases of braxy are similar to to red-water (bloody murrain) ' 
cattle. 



314 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

which doubtless increased the malady. Information as to 
this calamity was furnished by a creditable drover, who 
was an eye-witness of it. Drovers, therefore, should use 
special care as to placing their flocks in swampy pastures. 
Sheep, when very hungry, devour rough-edged grasses 
very freely ; whereas, at other times, they will seldom eat 
much of them, if there is a supply of other good grasses. 

Cases of braxy, produced by new wheat, are related by 
Mr. John Hawes, in the "Veterinarian," for 1840. He 
says : " In the month of September, in the last year, a 
flock of sheep, more than 200 in number, strayed into a 
field where there was a quantity of wheat, which had not 
been carried in, in consequence of the unfavorable state of 
the weather. They fed rather bountifully upon it before 
they were discovered by the shepherd ; when they were 
immediately removed to the pasture on which they had 
previously been grazing ; and no farther notice was taken 
of them until the following day, when four of them were 
found dead, and several others were evidently ill. To all 
that evinced any symptoms of disease, Epsom salts and 
castor oil were immediately given. But on the following 
morning, finding that twenty-eight had already died, and 
nearly as many more were almost dead, the owner sent for 
me, as it is too frequently the case, when it was too late to 
be of much service. The first thing that I did, was, to ex- 
amine some of those that had died, and I found the rumen, 
in every instance, filled with wheat, barley, and straw : the 
abomasum highly inflamed, as well as the bowels : the 
spleen had the appearance of a mass of coagulated blood — 
its structure being entirely destroyed : the lungs, in most 
of the cases, presented a healthy appearance, as alo did the 
liver. Fifty-eight died in the course of five days after eat- 
ing the wheat ; the others were bled, and half a pint of lin- 
seed oil was given to each, and they recovered : but many 
of them have since thrown their lambs." 

In the above case, it is very evident that the beards of 
wheat and barley caused an inflammation of the internal 
coats of the stomach, similar to that caused by horse-tail 
grasses ; the berries of these grains being the very best of 
feed for sheep. 

Prevention of Braxy and Rot. A review of the cau- 
ses which produce braxy and rot, will show us that low, 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 315 

moist lands are unfavorable to sheep, either from the chem- 
ical composition, or from the shape of the leaves of grasses, 
which frequently grow on such lands ; and upland hay, in 
winter, is as much better for them than lowland hay, as up- 
land pasture is better than lowland pasture. 

Hence, sheep should not be confined to pastures where 
sharp-edged grasses abound ; and whenever their food is 
deficient in quality, from the moisture of the soil, climate, 
or weather, a suitable supply of pitch or tar, with salt, ashes, 
and gypsum, should be carefully supplied for them at all 
times, as prescribed under the head of condiments. These 
are the means of prevention of braxy and rot which can 
ever be depended upon. 

But as every thing which weakens, relaxes, or injures 
the bowels, has a tendency to produce these diseases, the 
deficiency of nutriment of hay, straw, or pasture in winter, 
should be made up in grain or roots. If, notwithstanding 
these precautions, some, are inclined to these diseases, they 
(especially lambs) should be confined to fields, where the 
pasture is very short, and should receive a full supply of 
hay, with a suitable amount of grain : they will thus obtain 
the exercise which is necessary for them, without being in- 
jured by frost-bitten grasses, which have a strong tendency 
to produce diarrhoea and braxy. In summer, a sufficient 
supply of pasture should be provided, so that all may begin 
the winter in good condition : they will then be less liable 
to braxy during winter. 

Hence, also, mouldy or musty hay, being partially de- 
composed, will be extremely injurious to sheep : and as it 
is much disliked by them, much of it will be wasted. Hay 
should always be sufficiently dried by the sun or air, so as 
not to become mouldy or musty in the barn or stack. 

The pasturage of sheep, in the neighborhood of stagnant 
waters, should be avoided : such waters produce bowel 
diseases as effectually for sheep as for mankind. — (Mc- 
Kenzie.) 

The rot cannot be considered a contagious disease : but 
as ewes, which are much effected with it, cannot produce 
strong, healthy lambs, and, therefore, should not be used 
for breeding, I shall insert Mr. Beattie's rule for judg- 
ing them, as follows : " The first thing to be observed, is, 
in the spring time, when they are dropping their lambs. 



316 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

A sound ewe, in good order, drops a lamb covered with a 
ihick and yellow slime, which the ewe licks off it : and the 
rule is, the sounder and higher the condition the ewe is in, 
the darker and thicker will be the slime ; but when they 
observe a ewe drop a lamb covered with thin watery bub- 
bles, and very white, they note her down as unsound." — 
(Blacklock.) 

If the bowels of a sheep are much decayed, and it has 
plenty of good food within its reach, the parts between the 
hips and the short ribs, will surely fall in more than they 
should in a healthy animal, and thereby show the state of 
the bowels. 

As perfection of form is a great preservative against 
these bowel complaints, sheep should be selected for breed- 
ing, which have a large, deep, broad, and round chest. It fre- 
quently happens that when one-half, or three-fourths of a 
flock of lambs are destroyed by the rot, few will be saved 
but such as have a large, well-formed chest. Hence, the 
New Leicester, and other improved long-wooled breeds of 
mutton sheep, are admirably adapted to rich, level lands, 
which are unfavorable to most other breeds. 

Much has been written to show that salt was a preventive 
against the rot ; but this is a great mistake. So much 
salt as will be necessary for the purpose of digestion, will 
be useful : all over and above what is strictly necessary for 
them, will be injurious to them — will help to create the dis- 
ease, it being a very relaxing article. 

Potash is very abundant in rich beach lands. Hence, 
such lands generally are not so favorable for^sheep as oak 
lands, which contain less potash but more soda. 

As the bowels of sheep, when afflicted with these inter- 
nal diseases, are very tender and sensitive to injury, the 
use of poisonous medicines, such as digitalis, Copperas, 
calomel, and salt-petre, should be carefully avoided : for 
under such circumstances, even a moderate use of grain 
will often be injurious, causing them to scour too much ; 
and any thing poisonous will be highly injurious. 

DIARRHCEA. - 

By this term, is meant a constant purging, which affects 
sheep occasionally at all times of the year ; but is most 
common in spring. In simple diarrhoea, there is no in- 



DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 317 

flammation of the mucus membranes of the bowels, and, 
consequently, there is no fever, and the appetite is unim- 
paired, unless in the last stages of the disease. Diarrhoea 
is generally an effort of nature to expel front the intestinal 
canal something which is offensive, and is the natural re- 
sult of the crude, acid, undigested, or irritating state of the 
food which passes through them. And it is only in the last 
stages of the disease, that inflammation of the mucus mem- 
branes and fever frequently supervene. 

The causes of diarrhoea are — 

First, — Eating young or rank grasses of rapid growth'. 
Therefore, when the foddering season is about to expire, 
they should have a little hay daily, for a week or two ; and 
if they do not incline to eat it, it may be sprinkled with a 
little very weak brine : they will then eat it freely ; after 
which, grass alone, with the necessary condiments, will be 
sufficient for them. 

Second, — Change from short pasture to full feeding. 
Third, — Exposure to sudden transitions of weather, or 
to wet weather, closing the pores of the skin. Hence, 
shelter will be an useful preventive. 

Fourth, — Weakness of the bowels, from poverty, or other 
causes. 

Fifth, — Salting too freely early in the spring, when the 
grass is very young and flashy. 

Sixth, — Feeding upon irritating weeds or grasses. — 
Sharp-edged grasses will sometimes make cattle scour ex- 
cessively ; and will doubtless affect sheep in the same 
manner. In such case, their pastures should be changed 
without delay. If such grasses are to be used as hay for 
animals of any kind, they should be cut as soon as they 
have attained their full height, and before they have become 
hard and wiry. 

Seventh, — Feeding upon aftermath hay, or hay which 
was made from any grasses which were not sufficiently ri- 
pened before they were cut. Such grasses abound in sac- 
charine matter, and readily create acids by fermentation in 
the stomach ; and, consequently, the hay which is made 
from them, will have the same effect, only in a less degree. 
Upland grasses should be cut while the stalks are yet green, 
but after the blossom has fallen, and before the seed begins 
to shell ; for then, a large proportion of the saccharine mat- 



318 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

ter will have been converted into starch — which does not 
so readily become acid in the stomach as sugar. Such hay 
is most relished both by sheep and cattle. 

Eighth, — Giving grain in too large quantities, when first 
beginning to feed it. It should be fed moderately at first, 
and the quantity gradually increased. 

Treatment of Diarrhoea. In many cases, an allowance 
of good hay, or confinement to good, well-cured hay, with- 
out much water, and with suitable shelter, will gradually 
stop the disease. Feeding a proportion of oat straw will 
frequently be very beneficial. If these means are ineffec- 
tual, mix equal parts of pulverized chalk and common salt, 
and give doses of one-eight or one-fourth of an ounce of 
the mixture once or twice daily. — (Dr. Parry.) 

Or what is better, mix equal proportions of gypsum and 
common salt, and give doses of one-eight of an ounce. If 
necessary, cleanse the bowels with one, two or three 
drachms of rhubarb, and then give doses of the aforesaid 
mixtures, adding a fourth of a drachm of ginger to each 
dose. 

Sometimes diarrhoea proceeds, principally, from a want 
of action in the kidneys, and, in consequence, the animal 
system contains so much water, that the lacteal ducts do 
not readily receive water into the animal system ; hence, 
that which is in the intestinal canal, instead of being 
absorbed by the lacteal ducts, is carried off by diarrhoea. 

In such cases, put tar or pitch into the sheep's mouth 
once in a day or two, so as to compel it to swallow the 
tar ; this will excite the kidneys into full action, and will 
frequently be a sufficient remedy for the complaint. 

Diarrhoea is generally an easily managed disease. But 
it is sometimes only a symptom of some other disease, or 
an effort of the constitution to ward off some more serious 
evils. In such case it will be be necessary to proceed with 
caution, and not stop the disease too suddenly. When it 
is only a symptom of rot, it will be difficult to cure it ; 
and, in such case, should be stopped only by such medi- 
cines as are proper for rot. 

Prevention of Diarrhoea. With a suitable proportion 
of lime and gypsum, in their condiments, sheep will sel- 
dom be troubled with this complaint. The acids which 
are generated in the stomach, are the principal cause of 






DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 319 

this disease : lime will neutralize these acids, and gypsum 
will strengthen the bowels, so as to prevent the complaint, 
unless their food is of a very bad quality, or the bowels 
are extremely weak. When ewes have free access to a 
supply of salt, ashes and gypsum mixed, their lambs are 
almost never troubled with diarrhoea. 

At those times of the year when sheep are more partic- 
ularly subjected to diarrhoea, a little more than the usual 
proportion of gypsum, should be mixed with their condi- 
ments, together with an increased proportion of pitch, as 
the grasses at such times are too succulent. 

Lambs, after being weaned, are much more subject to 
diarrhcea, than full grown sheep, and therefore they should 
be placed upon the driest pastures, and in winter should 
be provided, with the best quality of hay, and other food, 
together with the necessary condiments. 

DYSENTERY. 

The dysentery is an acute inflammation of the mucus 
membranes or inner lining of the hinder part of the bow- 
els, or large intestines. Fever is a constant attendant 
upon it, in its early stages, and wasting and debility rapid- 
ly follow. 

Causes of Dysentery. These appear to be, principally, 
a bad quality of the grasses, or a sultry state of the atmos- 
phere, or some peculiar changes of weather. These causes 
produce a weakness of the bowels ; the feces become in- 
jurious to them, and inflammation seisin. 

Symptoms of Dysentery. In this disease, the pulse is 
quick, and the respirations hurried, giving evidence of fe- 
ver ; the eyes are red and languid, and the ears droop ; 
the mouth is dry, and the tip and edges of the tongue will 
be redder than the middle portions of it ; the animal eats 
sparingly, and rumination is stopped : the discharges from 
the bowels are frequently slimy, sometimes green, and at 
a more v advanced stage of the disease, are mixed with 
blood, or become black and fetid; flatulence is frequently 
attendant upon this disease; and the* bowels are sometimes 
knotted aud lumpy to the touch. 

Dysentery is distinguished from diarrhoea, in several 
particulars, as pointed out by Dr. Duncan, of Scotland, at 
follows : 



320 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

1. — Diarrhoea is more frequent in spring, and late in au- 
tumn ; whereas, dysentery is most common in July, Au- 
gust and September. 

2. — In diarrhoea there is little or no fever, or tenesmus, 
or pain before the stools, as in dysentery. 

S. — In diarrhoea the faeces are loose and, in other re- 
spects, natural ; whereas, in dysentery the fosces consist 
of hard lumps, passed occasionally ; the rest being blood 
and slime. 

4. — In diarrhoea, the appetite is not lessened ; where- 
as, iu dysentery, the animal will have no appetite for food. 

5. — In dysentery the animal wastes rapidly ; but in diar- 
rhoea, only a temperary stop is put to its thriving ; after 
which, it makes rapid progress in convalescence. 

7. — Dysentery is frequently fatal ; diarrhoea is rarely 
fatal, unless the animal has been previously much debil- 
itated. 

Treatment of Dysentery. The following treatment is 
related by Mr. Sayer, in a useful essay on this disease, 
read to the Veterinary Medical Association : — " Two 
ounces of linseed oil and two grains of powdered opium 
were given to each sheep, in an infusion of linseed, the 
gruel being repeated several times ; and on the following 
day the opium was again administered, with half a drachm 
of powdered ginger, and the same quantity of gentian, 
which was given several times, and sometimes combined 
with linseed oil. 

"This treatment proved successful, and, indeed, is as 
good as can be advised ; the food being also attended to, 
and proper care bestowed.' 7 — (W. C. Spooner.) For me- 
rinoS) smaller doses. 

For this purpose, feed the animal, at intervals, with 
small quantities of well boiled porridge, made of wheaten 
flour or shorts, combined with a small proportion of linseed 
gruel ; and a moderate allowance of hay or grass, when 
its appetite returns. 

A solution of mutton tallow has been found very bene- 
ficial in dysentery of man, and, doubtless, would be as 
useful, and perhaps better than linseed oil, in that of the 
sheep. 

Possibly a mixture of common salt and gypsum may be 
as useful in dysentery as it is in braxy. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 321 

When the appetite returns, and the fceces begin to ac- 
quire a proper color and consistency, a speedy recovery 
may be expected. 

During recovery, a part of the wool always falls of. — 
(Blacklock.) 

Prevention of Dysentery. Dysentery cannot be consid- 
ered a contagious disease, unless to animals which are par- 
ticularly predisposed to the complaint, from having been in- 
jured by the same causes ; and then only when confined 
to the same stall or shed. It cannot be considered more 
contagious among sheep than among mankind. And, there- 
fore, when sheep are pastured in open fields, a free air 
will prevent any contagious influence ; and no particular 
precaution will be necessary, in order to prevent it, more 
than proper changes of pasture, and a supply of the neces- 
sary condiments and good waier. 

JAUNDICE. 

This disease consists in a superabundant discharge of 
bile, or an obstruction of the biliary ducts of the liver, in 
consequence of the undue thickness and viscidity of the 
bile, or by hardened bile, or gall stones, or by inflamma- 
tion or tubercles upon the liver. In either case, too great 
a quantity of bile is re-absorbed, and enters the circulation, 
and thus tinges ihe eyes and skin. 

Symptoms of Jaundice. The principal symptoms to be 
depended upon, are, a yellowness of the eyes, or caruncle 
of the eye, and a sluggishness of the animal almost amount- 
ing to sleep. — (Blacklock.) 

in rot, the liver is frequently affected with inflammations 
and tubercles, and, of course, some symptoms of jaundice 
are frequently apparent in such cases. 

Treatment of Jaundice. Barley is an old and useful 
remedy for liver complaints. In Ellis' remedy* for the 
rot, a decoction of barley was the principal ingredient 
among several others, and was undoubtedly used on account 
of its supposed efficacy upon the liver. In fattening hogs 
in Ohio, upon corn, or other such articles as are usually 
fed to them, a large proportion of their livers, when they 
are killed, are found to be diseased with tubercles in them ; 

* £llis, the ancient author of " The Shepherd's Sure Guide." 



322 DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

whereas, those which are fed mostly with barley, have, 
when killed, good sound livers. This has been ascertain- 
ed by repeated experiments. " The husk of barley con- 
tains a bitter principle which is tasted in the decoction of 
the entire barley ;* " and hence, doubtless, its medical 
properties are contained principally in its husk. 

We may, therefore, rest assured, that no better or more 
convenient remedy can be used for these liver complaints, 
than barley. 

For this purpose, feed a gill or more to, each sheep once 
or twice daily. But as it is a very relaxing and deobstru- 
ent article, care should be used that they do not get so much 
as to scour them. Barley, in its raw state, is best for this 
purpose : cooking it in water, or any other way by heating 
it, lessens its medicinal properties. If the liver is the only 
part diseased, barley may be used more freely : remem- 
bering that any article, which is powerful enough to do 
good, may also produce injury, if improperly used. 

Prevention of Jaundice. Liver complaints prevail most 
where the soil and climate are moist and relaxing, or where 
there are stagnant waters. The last mentioned is, proba- 
bly, the most frequent cause of jaundice. Therefore, in 
order to prevent it, care should be used not to pasture them 
in the neighborhood of such waters or marshes. 

Where the soil and climate are very dry, as in New Eng- 
land, the lower viscera, and particularly the liver, are gen- 
erally very sound. 

DROPSY. 

Dropsy is an effusion of serum in different parts of the 
body ; and is a complaint which frequently accompanies 
the rot. Dropsical deposits are frequently found under the 
jaws: in such case, it is sometimes called the Poke; also 
about the kidneys, and between the muscles in various 
parts of the body ; also in the peritonseum. 

Ordinarily, dropsy comes on slowly. In such cases, the 
serum is of a whitish or yellowish color. But dropsy some- 
times comes on with rapidity, particularly in the perito- 
naeum ; which is a membrane which lines the abdominal 
cavity. In such cases, it is accompanied with inflamma- 

*Farmers' Encyclopedia. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 323 

tion, and the serum is of a reddish color. This acute kind 
of dropsy is sometimes called the red-water. 

" It is the natural office of this membrane, the perito- 
nseum, to secrete a watery fluid, in order that the bowels 
should glide readily on each other. But when diseased 
action is set up in this membrane, its secretion becomes ex- 
cessive, and the serous portion of the blood, mingled with 
some of the red portion, becomes effused in this cavity, 
where it cannot escape. 

" This acute dropsy in the peritonaeum is (in England,) 
very common to lambs, both during the time they are with 
their dams, and after they are weaned, and in them, as 
well as in the sheep, it is very fatal, destroying the sheep 
in twenty-four hours, and the lambs in less time."— (W. C. 
Spooner.) 

In America, dropsy is generally chronic ; it is seldom 
acute. It is a disease very common among old sheep. 

Causes of Dropsy. Dropsy is produced by exposure to 
cold, damp weather in autumn, winter, or spring, or imme- 
piately after they are shorn, when it is more particularly 
injurious to them ; or by eating wet, frost-bitten gras- 
ses, or succulent grasses, or lowland pasture ; also, by feed- 
ing too freely on turnips, or other succulent roots. In Eng- 
land, feeding on turnips is a common cause of dropsy, par- 
ticularly where there is a hoar frost, and the sheep are 
folded on them during the night. 

Symptoms of Dropsy. The sheep appears dull and dis- 
inclined to move ; has a staring eye; loses flesh, strength, 
and spirits ; is generally, but not always, constipated ; 
dropsical swellings appear under the jaws or belly, or upon 
the legs; acute pain is seldom manifested. 

Appearances on Dissection. In every dissection, when 
the sheep is afflicted with dropsy under the jaws, or in the 
abdomen or parts adjacent, the kidneys are invariably found 
to be defective ; they are either enlarged in size, and flabby, 
or are injured in substance, and turned of a yellowish brown 
color on the outer edges, like the color of the mesentery 
glands when injured in rot; and the true reason why 
dropsical affections arise in sheep, appears to be, that there 
is either an improper action, or a want of full action of the 
kidneys ; and for that reason, too large an amount of water 
remains in the animal system. 



324 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

When man is afflicted with dropsy, the kidneys are gen- 
erally defective in the same manner. — (Dr. Mcintosh.) 

Treatment of Dropsy. In the treatment of this disease, 
place the animal in a dry and comforable situation, especi- 
ally when the weather is cold and wet. If succulent grass 
or food has been the cause of the disease, the sheep should 
be put upon drier food, either hay or dry pasture. If it is 
costive, a gentle purgative of linseed oil or rhubarb, should 
be administered to it; otherwise, a purgative will be unne- 
cessary : bleeding will be improper. Medicine should then 
be given which will strengthen the kidneys, and excite 
them into action, such as gum guiac, tar, pitch, or spirits of 
turpentine, in small doses. And for this purpose, tar or 
pitch is one of the most convenient and powerful medicines 
which can be used : it is tonic, diuretic, and antiseptic. It 
will frequently lessen, or take entirely away, a dropsical 
swelling under the jaws, even in the last stages of the rot ; 
and a perfect cure may sometimes be effected, when there 
is a large swelling under the jaws, by applying tar to the 
lips or mouth of the sheep, a few times, once in two days. 
But it is seldom that a perfect cure can be effected, either 
for man or beast, when the kidneys are much affected ; and, 
therefore, a large proportion of the sheep which are afflicted 
with dropsy, die, as a matter of course; but the means of 
recovery should be used, and some may be saved. 

Prevention of Dropsy. In summer, pasture them as 
much as possible on dry lands. Fallow fields and stubble 
fields will be particularly useful to them, on account of 
the large quantities of bitter and diuretic weeds, which 
are sure to spring up and grow in them. In winter, be 
careful not to feed too large qwantities of turnips, cabbage, 
or other succulent food, especially to ewes which are with 
lamb. Shelter from wet and cold should be provided for 
them in winter, and also in summer, for a few days after 
they are shorn ; and in order fully to prevent dropsy, a 
small quantity of tar or pitch should be mixed with their 
condiments, or tar should be applied to their noses, once in 
two or three weeks. 

In confirmation of my experience, as to the benefit of 
««(, in preventing and curing dropsy, I shaH^nsert the re- 
manes of Mr. Greaves, of Derbyshire, in England, upon 
mis subject. He says : " This disease (acute dropsy) is 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 325 

very prevalent in this part of Derbyshire, and a friend of 
mine, Mr. Cooper, of Ashford, for many years, lost one 
fifth of his hoggets from red water. Three or four years 
ago, he was advised to bring them into a yard, and give 
each hogget a table spoonful of common tar, every fort- 
night ; and the consequence has been, that, although they 
are kept in every respect, in the same way as before, and 
on the same ground, he has not lost one sheep since the 
adoption of this treatment." — (W. C. Spooner.) 

From a full view of the causes of dropsy, it seems very 
evident that, the more succulent their food, the greater will 
be their need for bitter and diuretic articles. 

HYDROPHOBIA. 

Sheep are liable to be bitten by rabid dogs, and, there- 
• fore, it will be proper to take notice of this disease, in this 
place. 

This disease is primarily produced only in carnivorous 
animals, such as dogs, cats, &c, and there is no satisfactory 
evidence on record, that it is ever originally produced, in 
purely graminivorous animals ; yet when propagated among 
them, by the bites of rabid animals, the symptoms produ- 
ced in them are very similar to those produced in the ani- 
mals first affected ; and the disease is communicated by 
means of the saliva of the rabid animal. 

This disease appears to be produced by the joint influ- 
ence of the oxalic acid and the oxalat of potash, formed 
in the stomach of dogs, &c. ; the stomach is the part first 
affected, and the symptoms produced, arise from the in- 
flammation of the stomach, and the qualities of the oxalic 
j acid and oxalat of potash. 

As like causes produce like effects, a comparison of the 
| symptoms produced in man, by a dose of oxalic acid, with 
the symptoms of hydrophobia in man, and also a compar- 
! ison of the effects of the oxalic acid and oxalat of potash, 
upon the sheep, in cases of braxy, with the symptoms of 
hydrophobia in the sheep, will show that it originates from 
the same causes as braxy. 

In man, the following symptoms are similar, both in 
cases of hydrophobia, and upon taking a dose of oxalic acid. 

1. — Nausea and vomiting, attended with a burning heat 
at the pit of the stomach. 



326 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

2. — Inflammation of the stomach and upper part of the 
intestinal tube. 

3. — A weak and frequent pulse, and a sunken counte- 
nance. 

4. — The blood of persons afflicted with hydrophobia, 
has, on dissection, an oily appearance, like that which has 
been found in the stomachs of those who have died by 
taking oxalic acid. — (M. Troillet.) 

5. — The skins of some of those persons, who have died 
by taking oxalic acid, were dappled with red circular 
patches ; but in cases of hydrophobia, the whole skin of 
the person afflicted, usually becomes of a livid red color, 
after death. — (See Eberle's Practice of Medicine.) 

In the sheep, the following symptoms are often present, 
both in hydrophobia, and also in in that kind of braxy, 
which is produced by the oxalic acid, and oxalat of pot- 
ash. 

1. — A frothing at the mouth, or salivation. 

2. — Inflammation of the stomach and intestinal tube 
next adjoining. 

3. — A spasmodic action of the jaws, urinary organs, &c. 

4. — Coma, or stupidity. 

The observations of Mr. Spooner will illustrate these 
facts. He says : " In the sheep an indefinite period may 
elapse between the time of the inoculation, and the first 
exhibition of the symptoms, ranging from two to six 
weeks ; and this is a shorter period, than usually super- 
venes, both in the dog and in the human being." 

" The first symptoms of rabies in the sheep, which are 
observed, are", a diminished appetite, and a disposition to 
ride each other ; to which succeed a propensity to mischief. 
The sheep will often butt each other furiously, but will not 
bite, although they will nibble at a stick, if presented to 
them. There is considerable nervous irritability develop- 
ed, spasmodic twitchings of the muscles and quickened 
respiration. They become drowsy, lose their appetite, 
and take no notice of surrounding objects ; saliva flows 
from the mouth ; thirst is exhibited without ability to swal- 
low. There is no dread of water at any period of the dis- 
ease, which, in some cases, proves fatal in a couple of 
days, arfd in others continues upwards of a week." 

" The post-mortem appearances are not always alike, 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 327 

but it is very rare, that some of the following appearances 
are not found, and generally they are mostly present to- 
gether : Much inflammation is found at the back of the 
tongue, and entrance of the windpipe and gullet; and the 
course of the windpipe often shows similar inflammation. 
Sometimes the first stomach will appear greatly inflamed, 
and partially filled with heterogeneous indigestible con- 
tents ; but more frequently the disease will be found most 
extensively in the fourth stomach, which contains a dark 
frothy fluid. * Sometimes the brain and spinal cord will 
exhibit the tokens of much inflammation, but in others will 
appear pretty free from disease. 

" In the dog, these appearances are present in a more 
marked degree. The stomach is either full of a dark, 
chocolate colored fluid, or distended with a mass of indi- 
gestible substances, such as hay, straw, wood, &c. The 
back of the tongue and entrance to the windpipe also exhi- 
bit a highly inflammatory appearance, and the brain like- 
wise is often affected." 

In hydrophobia, the nerves of the pylorus are, doubt- 
less, much affected. The pylorus is a very sensitive part 
of the bowels, and when its nerves are much affected, by 
anything which is contained in the stomach, as by the ox- 
alic acid, which is very irritating, a tremor is often com- 
municated to the whole system ; and this tremor is a com- 
mon symptom in hydrophobia. 

Treatment. " If a sheep, which has been bitten by a 
rabid dog, is in any wise fit for the butcher, it will be prop- 
er, by all means, to kill it, if it has been recently bitten ; 
and by carefully removing any part suspected to have been 
bitten, no danger whatever will be incurred." — (W. C. 
Spooner.) 

"The poison of hydrophobia is confined to the saliva, 
and the flesh of a rabid animal, which has not been in 
contact with the teeth or the saliva, may be eaten with im- 
punity. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been 
eaten, in days of ignorance, dressed in all manner of ways, 

* Dr. Thatcher has recorded a case of inflammation of the stomach in 
man, attended with spontaneous hydrophobia.— [See N. York Medioal 
and Physical Journal, Vol. 2. J 



328 DISEASES OF TEE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

but usually fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive 
against madness."— (Youatt.) 

Otherwise, if a sheep is suspected or known to have been 
bitten by a rabid dog, it will be necessary to examine it with 
the greatest care, and to clip off the wool closely from 
every place which has received a flesh or skin wound, or 
even the smallest scratch. The edges of the wound should 
then be cut off with a knife, and lunar caustic (nitrate of 
silver,) or a hot iron, should be applied to every part which 
has received the slightest scratch ; and, if necessary, the 
wound should be enlarged, so that the lunar caustic or hot 
iron may penetrate as far as the teeth of the rabid animal 
have reached. If this operation is performed soon after the 
animal is first bitten, and is thoroughly done, the beast wiil 
be safe. 

If the beast becomes rabid, mix equal parts of leached 
ashes, gypsum, and magnesia, with half a part of tar, or 
spirits of turpentine, or both, and administer to the sheep 
a half an ounce or an ounce of this mixture, stirred in with 
gruel, once in two or three hours. This mixture is designed 
to neutralize the acids of the stomach, and to arrest the 
rapid decomposition which goes on in the animal system, 
and to strengthen the kidneys, and to excite them into ac- 
tion. 

In order to quiet the pylorus and the nervous system, 
peal from the fore legs of one or more horses, an ounce of 
horse castor, which grows on the skin a little above the 
knee-joint, and cut it up in fine pieces, and steep it in wa- 
ter, and give half a gill or more of the infusion to the sheep, 
once in an hour or two, or as much ofteoer as may appear 
necessary, in order to effect the desired purpose. 

This horse castor is one of the most powerful antispas- 
modic medicines which can be used ; and its formation and 
existence in the blood of the horse, is probably the cause 
why the horse is able to withstand, in a great measure, the 
spasmodic influence of the oxalat of potash, which most 
other graminivorous animals cannot do. The principal 
injurious effect which the horse receives from the oxalat of 
potash is, in the production of the heaves. As the masti- 
cation of the horse is much less perfect than that of rumina- 
ting animals, its digestion, also, is often less perfect, and, 
consequently, its stomach is more subject to the formation 






DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 329 

of the oxalic and other acids, than those of ruminating ani- 
mals : and the elimination of this substance, in the svstem 
of the horse, may have been intended as a defence against 
the influence of such acids, and after it is formed and used 
in the system, it is secreted upon the sides of the fore legs ; 
for the qualities of every thing which exists, were created 
with reference to other things. 

If by these means the animal can be kept alive six or 
seven days, the disease will run its course ; the poison will 
be carried off in the saliva, and the animal may live. 

Special care should be used that ihe saliva of the rabid 
animal does not come in contact with any wound or scratch 
upon the hand or other part of the body, or with the lips of 
the person attending such animals. 

Mr. Spooner remarks that, " the rabid dog invariably 
dies within a week, generally about four days from the first 
exhibition of the symptoms. This fact, therefore, affords 
a reason why the suspected dog should not be destroyed, 
but should be tied up securely, so as to test by its death, as 
well as by (he symptoms manifested, the existence of the 
disease. The symptoms that he will probably exhibit, are, 
a disposition for mischief; a peculiar glassy expression of 
the eye; twitching of the muscles; an unceasing restless- 
ness ; a peculiar and unnatural howl ; a copious flow of 
viscid saliva from the mouth ; a want of appetite, but a dis- 
position to gnaw and tear and swallow wood, hay, straw, or 
any foreign substance that may be near. These are the 
leading symptoms ; there are no fits, no running round, no 
turning or falling over. The animal possesses conscious- 
ness throughout, and the presence of fits will be almost suf- 
ficient to decide at once that the animal is not rabid. It 
should, also, be distinctly observed that, in the dog, there is 
no dread of water, though often an inability to swallow. 
The dog will often thrust his nose in, and lap the water, 
though unable to swallow a drop. 

" The time between the bite of one dog by another rabid 
dog, and the manifestation of the disease, is uncertain, va- 
rying from six weeks to six months, but usually about two 
or three months." 



330 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 



SECTION XLIV. 

DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 
CORYZA. 

Coryza is a running of mucus from the nose. It arises 
from a slight inflammation of the membranes lining the air 
passages of the nose, head, and throat, and is an effort of 
the system to expel excrementitious matters which should 
pass off through the skin and kidneys. 

The sheep is more incommoded by coryza than most 
other animals, owing to the naturall)'' small calibre of its 
nostrils ; and it is from this peculiarly small formation of 
the nostrils that the sheep is so easily blown, when made 
to exert itself in running. 

When the inflammation extends far down the air tubes 
of the throat, the symptoms often assume a severer type, 
and death sometimes occurs from suffocation. It then be- 
comes bronchitis, in its worst form, and, in such cases, is 
generally accompanied with a cough and feverish symp- 
toms. 

Treatment of Coryza. In all mucus or dropsical affec- 
tions of the head, throat, or jaws, the kidneys seem not to 
act sufficiently for the time being, or else they act improp- 
erly ; and, therefore, in such affections, the use of tar, 
or pitch, administered to the sheep, has an excellent effect ; 
it stimulates and strengthens the kidneys, and helps diges- 
tion, and is one of the best remedies for coryza. It should 
be applied to the mouth and lips of the sheep, once in a 
day or two, so that the animal cannot avoid the use of it. 
Tar is a very effectual remedy. 

Or, feed a drachm of ginger, or pimento, daily to each 
sheep, in provender or gruel, for a few days. 

If the feverish symptoms are severe, it will be well to 
give a mild purgative, and, in some cases, to bleed; but 
bleeding will seldom be necessary in this disease. 

If any one is badly afflicted, so as to breathe with great 
difficulty, a little snuff may be placed in its nose ; this will 
compel it to dislodge the mucus, and give relief, until 
other medicines can have effect. 

Prevention of Coryza, Exposure to cold and wet wea- 






DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 331 

ther are among the most prominent causes of this com- 
plaint : and, therefore, in winter, good shelters and whole- 
some food are the best means of prevention ; in summer, a 
proper supply of tar or pitch, especially where the grasses 
are very succulent. 

If any are particulary subject to this disease, they should 
be sorted out and fattened off, if possible. 

CONSUMPTION OF THE LUNGS. 

Symptoms. A cough and coryza are the principal appa- 
rent symptoms of consumption of the lungs. 

Causes. Mr. Youatt says : " This disease is especially 
prevalent in low and moist pastures, and it is of most fre- 
quent occurrence in spring and autumn, and when the 
weather at those seasons is unusually cold and changeable." 

Appearances on Dissection. Blacklock informs us that, 
"when the lungs are much affected, tubercles are formed 
in them. These tubercles are hard, white bodies, which 
vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a pea. 
They are sprinkled through all parts of the lungs, and will, 
in every dissection, be found in a variety of stages, from 
the firm condition in which they were deposited, to the soft 
state which denotes their speedy expectoration. Each tu- 
bercle, however small, usually holds a particle of calca- 
rious matter in its centre. The lungs in the advanced sta- 
ges of rot, (in Scotland,) will be full of cells or caverns, 
owing to the destruction of its texture by suppuration in 
those parts where tubercles existed. The cells or sacs are 
of all sizes, from that of a bean to that of a goose egg. 
These sacs contain purulent matter of all shades and odors, 
and identical with that which the animal coughed up. Tu- 
bercles, and all their concomitants, as above detailed, are 
also met with in the liver, though not so frequently as in 
the lungs. They constantly occur in the clyers, (mesen- 
teric or lacteal glands.) which, on this account, are much 
above their usual size, and are occasionally found in other 
parts." 

According to the chemical analysis of M. T. Boudet, the 
principal elements of tubercles of the human lungs, (which 
are, doubtless, similar in substance to those of graminivo- 
rous animals,) are chlorate of sodium and sulphate of soda, 
with salts of lime in small quantity. 



332 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 

Now, the true reason why these tubercles are formed, 
seems to be, that there is in the blood an excess of the above 
mentioned salts of soda and lime, which are not fully car- 
ried out of the circulation through the kidneys, as they 
should bo, and, consequently, deposits of them are formed 
in the lungs and other glands, which are the basis of these 
tubercles. 

By chemical analysis, the urine of the sheep consists of 
the following ingredients : 

Water, 96.00 

Urea, along with some albumen, ) ~ qq 

and coloring matter, ^ 

Salts of potash, soda, lime, and ) 

magnesia, with traces of silica, > 1 .20 

alumina, iron, and manganese, y 

By this analysis, it appears that a proportion of the salts 
of the urine is, doubtless, composed of the very same in- 
gredients which compose tubercles. Whenever, therefore, 
the kidneys become inactive, these salts superabound, and 
the lungs, liver, and other glands receive deposits of them ; 
and eventually, the kidneys become so weak that they do 
not carry water enough out of the system, and dropsy sets 
in. Hence, in rot, these affections of the lungs are fre- 
quently accompanied with dropsy in some part of the body. 

Treatment. The above theory shows why tar and other 
resinous articles are so useful to the sheep, in affections of 
the iungs, and dropsy. These resinous articles strengthen 
and excite into action the kidneys, so as to carry off the va- 
rious salts of lime, soda, &c, which they should do, and 
prevent the formation of tubercles ; and, possibly, some- 
times discuss those which are already formed; for tar is 
strongly diuretic and detergent. But as barley will discuss 
tubercles of the liver, it may, with propriety, be used for the 
same purpose in tubercles of the lungs. 

Elence, the treatment which promises to be most advan- 
tageous for tubercles (or consumption) of the lungs, will 
consist m feeding a half gill or gill of barley daily, to each 
sheep thus affected, and in the frequent application of tar 
to the sheep's mouth, together with all necessary condi- 
ments ; indigestion being ever present in such cases. 

Fortunately, the lungs of sheep are much less affected 



DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 333 

with disease in America than in Britain ; even in the cold, 
severe climate of New England, consumption of the 
lungs, as an original, primary complaint in the sheep, 
is seldom seen. And, therefore, if the lungs are much ef- 
fected, we may be assured that some part of the other vis- 
cera are unsound, or very deficient in their, action, espe- 
cially the kidneys. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

" This disease consists in an inflammation of the sub- 
stance of the lungs ; and thus differs from two other disea- 
ses, for either of which it may be mistaken, and with which 
it may or may not co-exist, that is pleurisy and bronchitis ; 
pleurisy being an inflammation of the membrane covering 
the lungs and lining the chest, and bronchitis being an in- 
flammation of the membrane lining the bronchial or air 
tubes of the throat." 

The causes of this complaint are, an undue exposure to 
wet and cold : hence, washing or shearing when the wea- 
ther is too cold ; exposure after being shorn, or chills after 
hard driving, may cause this complaint; also, over- feed- 
ing, or feeding too largely in beginning to feed grain, or 
other stimulating food to sheep which have previously had 
short feed. 

"High bred animals, particularly the Leicester breed, 
are more disposed to this complaint, and also to pleurisy, 
than some other breeds of sheep." 

Symptoms. The symptoms of this disease, as given by 
M. Seron, a French Veterinary Surgeon, are as follows : — 
" The whites of the eyes are red and injected ; the mouth 
hot ; accelerated pulse and laborious breathing ; the mouth 
of the sheep rests on one side, and the animal makes fre- 
quent attempts to get rid of a yellow mucus with which the 
nostrils are clogged. One symptom is remarkable, and al- 
ways present, namely, great tenderness of the loins ; if the 
animal is pressed on that part, he will often fall suddenly to 
the ground." 

Other symptoms are, ceasing to ruminate : an unwilling- 
ness to move ; slight heaving of the flanks ; a frequent and 
painful cough. 

Treatment. Bleed a pint from the neck or leg. After 
this, give a dose of two ounces of Epsom or Glauber salts, 



334 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 

and place the animal under a comfortable shelter, When 
the bowels are cleansed* give half a drachm of nitre in gruel 
once in six hours — oftener, if the fever appears to increase, 
together with cooling drinks, such as cream of tartar dis- 
solved in water, with small quantities of gruel, until the in- 
flammation is subdued. After which, feed moderately, un- 
til the animal is restored. 

" The duration of the malady is from twenty-four to 
thirty hours, and its termination is always fatal, unless med- 
ical aid is rendered without delay." 

PLEURISY. 

" This disease is an inflammation of the pleura, or mem- 
brane lining the chest. It is produced by the same causes 
as inflammation of the lungs, with which it may be accom- 
panied ; particularly by sudden changes, which chill the 
whole system. It is not unusual, on examining the bodies 
of sheep, to find the lungs adhering to the sides of the 
chest ; and the animal thus affected generally loses flesh. 
This adhesion is the effect of pleurisy." 

Symptoms. *' The symptoms of this disease are, in ma- 
ny respects, like those of inflammation of the lungs ; but it 
is attended occasionally by severe pain, and by a harder 
and more defined pulse, and more warmth of the body, 
than inflammation of the lungs." 

Treatment. 4i This must consist of active bleeding, in 
the first instance ; and, in this disease, the sheep can bear 
blood-letting to a greater extent ttyan in most other disea- 
ses. The bleeding may be repeated, if necessary; setons 
may be inserted in the brisket; the bowels should be kept 
moderately relaxed, and, in other respects, the same treat- 
ment observed as in inflammation of the lungs." — (W. C. 
Spooner.) 

Sheep are seldom afflicted with pleurisy, or inflamma- 
tion of the lungs, in the United States. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 335 

SECTION XLV. 

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, (CYSTICJS). 

" Inflammation of the bladder, sometimes called watery 
braxy, is rather a rare disease with sheep, and is chiefly 
confined to such as are kept on artificial food, such as oil- 
cake, beans, &c; though it is said that clover, which has 
been mown, will produce it. It is mostly confined to the 
male sex, and principally to rams, and such as arc highly 
fed. 

" The state of the bladder appears to be that of fulness, 
which shows that its neck is involved in inflammation, and 
thus becomes contracted, and closes the cavity, producing 
strangury." — (Spooner.) 

Symptoms, These are, uneasiness, frequently shifting 
the hind legs, and straining, as if to void urine, without the 
capability of doing it ; stiffness, and unwillingness to move 
about, with feverish symptoms. 

Treatment. Bleed a pint from the neck or leg : after 
which, administer one or two ounces of linseed or castor 
oil, with ten grains of powdered opium : if necessary, re- 
peat the purgative dose during the day, or any succeeding 
day : feed the animal with wheat flour gruel, mixing with 
it small portions of cream of tartar, together with hay or 
grass ; feeding moderately until the feverish symptoms are 
reduced. 

CALCULI IN THE URINARY ORGANS. 

Urinary calculi, or gravel of graminivorous animals, is 
generally composed of phosphat of lime or oxalat of lime, 
united with small portions of carbonat of lime, carbonat of 
magnesia and mucus. They result from a peculiar indi- 
gestion, whereby too large a proportion of these salts is re- 
ceived into the animal system, or from a want of due ac- 
tion in the kidneys. They may be produced by confine- 
ment to dry fodder, which is made from unripe grasses, 
whereby oxalat of lime may be produced, or by the con- 
stant feeding, or over-feeding of oil-cake or other highly 
nutritious relaxing food, whereby the lacteal ducts are too 



336 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

much relaxed, and phosphat oflime is too freely absorbed. 
The bad effects of bad food is increased in such cases, by a 
want of sufficient exercise. Sheep are also sometimes af- 
flicted with this complaint when confined to woody pastures, 
the herbage of which is of inferior quality. These calculi 
are generally found in the uretha of rams or wethers, and 
are apt to lodge near the end of the penis, in pieces of the 
size of a wheat kernel. They produce excessive pain, and 
sometimes destroy the animal by stopping the passage of 
the urine. 

Symptoms. If the animal is very uneasy, and tries to 
void urine frequently, and without much effect, it may be 
suspected that he is troubled with gravel. Mr. Stevens, of 
New Market, in England, in a communication in the 13th 
volume of the " Veterinarian, '' observes, that in every case 
which had occurred to him, concretions were found adhe- 
ring to the hairs of the prepuse, like beads, of the same 
character as the calculi taken from the uretha. 

Treatment. In such cases, the penis should be drawn 
out and examined, and if a calculus is found to be in it, a 
cut should be made into the penis, down upon the gravel, 
which may then be removed. One or two sutures should 
then be passed through the edges of the wound, which will 
speedily adhere. If the animal is very valuable, it may be 
well to employ a skilful surgeon to perform the operation. 
After which, means should be used for the prevention of 
calculi. 

Prevention of Calculi. It has been found that astrin- 
gent and diuretic medicines were most useful for this pur- 
pose. With this view, feed to animals thus afflicted, a large 
proportion of gypsum with tar, rosin, or pitch. If these ar- 
ticles fail to give relief, make a decoction of one ounce of 
juniper berries, one-fourth of anounce of boxwood leaves, and 
one-fourth of an ounce pearlash, in one gallon of water, and 
give doses of one gilltwiceor three times daily. — (See Amer- 
ican Agriculturist, 1844.) If the animal is constipated, give 
a dose of linseed or castor oil ; and if the animal is kept 
upon dry food, succulent food should be provided for it. — 
In place of oil-cake, &c, oats, buckwheat, and other farina- 
ceous articles should be fed alternately. At the same time, 
a full share of exercise should be allowed to animals thus 
affected ; exercise being very essential to the proper action 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 337 

of the kidneys; and, in summer, frequent changes of pas- 
ture should be provided for them. If this complaint is fully- 
seated upon an animal, so that it has become constitutional, 
it is very difficult to cure it. Hence, if possible, such ani- 
mals should be fattened off and slaughtered without delay. 



SECTION XLVI. 

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 

APTHiE OR THRUSH. 

This disease is an inflammation of the mucus mem- 
branes of some part of the mouth or tongue. 

Causes of Thrush. General relaxation, exposure to 
cold combined with moisture, or an acrimony of the hu- 
mors produced by unwholesome herbage, are the probable 
causes. 

This disease is of two kinds — -acute and chronic. 

ACUTE THRUSH. 

This kind of thrush is commonly called Blain, or 
Gloss Anthrax, in England. It is thus described by 
Mr. Spooner : " In this complaint, the tongue, or rather 
its connexions, are mostly affected; a number of vesicles 
or bladders appear on its side, attended with inability to 
feed, and a discharge of saliva from the mouth, which 
sometimes becomes bloody and offensive. These bladders 
burst, and leave behind large sores, which sometimes be- 
come troublesome ulcers ; and these symptoms are occa- 
sionally attended with swellings of the head and throat. 
There is little doubt but that the disease is infectious, wheth- 
er it appears as epidemic or not ; and, therefore, the af- 
fected sheep should be immediately separated from the rest 
of the flock." 

Treatment. The vesicles in the mouth, and also any 
tumors upon the head or neck, which evidently contain a 
fluid, should be freely lanced. These vesicles or tumors 
should be bathed with warm water, until the matter is 
mostly evacuated — then with cold water, in each pint of 
which, a drachm of chloride of lime, or alum, or borax, 



338 DISEASES OF THE MOUNH. 

has been dissolved. Aperients must be administered very 
cautiously, and not at all, unless there is considerable con- 
stipation. The strength of the animal should be supported 
with mashes of bran, linseed, or other farinaceous meal, 
and the best of succulent vegetables ; plenty of good thick 
gruel, if necessary, being horned down, and two drachms of 
powdered gentian and one of ginger being given morning, 
noon, and night, along with the gruel. 

CHRONIC THRUSH. 

This disease is less severe than acute thrush. It 
is attended with vesicles, but of a slighter description, and 
the sheep is often unable to feed. 

The following cases are related by Mr. Rawlins, of Bris- 
tol, in the tenth volume of the " Veterinarian." He says : 
" In the month of May, 1836, I was requested to examine 
the flock of Mr. Charles Marshal, of Snowhill, near Broad- 
way, Worcestershire, who had lost several ewes and lambs 
previous to my seeing them. I found seventy lambs in a 
most emaciated state, scarcely able to move, their mouth 
being a mass of disease, being one complete ulcer. On ex- 
amination, I found a large fungus issuing from all around 
the lower gum, enveloping the teeth, and protruding from 
the lip to a very considerable extent. There were about 
thirty still more or less affected. The disease clearly ori- 
nated in the lower gum, and when it was matured to any 
extent, the ewes refused to allow the lambs to suck, and it 
gradually pined away. At this stage of the disease, the 
lamb communicates it to the ewe's udder. As soon as the 
ewe is effected, she begins to lose flesh rapidly : the udder 
becomes tumefied. In some of the extreme cases, the ud- 
der suppurated, and parts of it, with one or both teats, 
sloughed, and the cure was rendered useless as a stock 
ewe." 

Treatment. First, separate the diseased lambs with their 
dams, from the rest of the flock, as the disease is conta- 
gious. The object desired, is, to destroy the fungus flesh 
and heal the parts affected. For this purpose, mix two 
ounces of alum with a gill of molasses, and the same 
quantity of vinegar ; apply the mixture two or three times 
daily to the parts affected. If the udder of the ewe is af- 
fected, wash it off, and apply the same ingredients to it 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 33& 

Willi a syringe. Give to the dams or other sheep thus 
afflicted each an ounce or two of Epsom salts or linseed oil. 
If the dam is purged, the sucking lamb will not need a 
purgative. 

Prevention of Thrush. With good shelter and food, 
the sheep will seldom be afflicted with this disease. It is 
almost or quite unknown, in the dry climate of the United 
States. 



SECTION XLVII. 

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
PELT EOT. 

This affection arises from exposure to cold, wet weather, 
and hard keeping, or poverty. The skin becomes so 
weak, as neither to be able to secrete the wool, or perfect- 
ly formed yolk ; the wool falls off from the parts affected, 
and the yolk presents the appearance of a mere scurf. 

Treatment. l£ much wool becomes loose, the skin 
should be well cleansed with soap and water, so as 
to dislodge the scurf, and then an ointment, made of one 
part tar, and three or four parts oil or grease, should be 
applied to the parts affected. Sometimes it will be neces- 
sary to apply a flannel covering, to the pans from which 
the wool has fallen. Full feeding and a warm stall will 
generally complete the cure. 

ERYSIPELAS. 

This disease consists in an inflammation of the skin, 
which raises the outer or scarf skin into blisters, which 
contain a thin, reddish, watery fluid ; on which account it 
is sometimes called the red-water. These blisters contin- 
ue for a short time, break, discharge their matter, and are 
followed by a blackish scab. Generally, it first appears 
about the breast and belly ; though at other times, it begins 
on other parts of the body, and spreads over it. It attacks 
most generally, sheep which are in the best condition, and 
has sometimes proved very fatal, when not attended to in 



340 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

season. In such cases, the fever increases, and soon de- 
stroys the animal. 

This disease makes its appearance more generally, about 
the beginning or end of winter. In such cases, it proba- 
bly arises from the exposure of the animal to cold and wet 
weather, which affects the animal internally, thus produ- 
cing a slight fever, which throws out these vesicles, simi- 
lar to the scabby eruptions, which appear about the face, 
and, more particularly, the mouth of persons affected by a 
cold. This disease also sometimes attacks sheep in the 
summer months. In such cases, it probably arises from 
the animal's being in high condition and, at the same time, 
feeding on too succulent pasture ; for, on dissection, in such 
cases, there appears to be an inflammation of some part of 
the bowels. 

Treatment. The sheep should be placed in a fold by 
itself; if the disease is violent, a little blood should be 
taken ; otherwise it will be sufficient to use cooling purga- 
tive medicines internally, and lotions or ointments exter- 
nally. 

For this purpose, give the animal an ounce of Epsom 
or Glauber salts — repeating the dose, if necessary, at the 
end of 12 or 24 hours — or give one-third of an ounce of 
flour of sulphur and one ounce of molasses, mixed with 
water or gruel, sufficient to wash it down ; repeating the 
dose for a few days. At the same time, a weak decoction 
of tobacco, or a weak solution of sugar of lead in vinegar, 
should be applied to the parts affected : or, lard or oil, with 
which has been mixed one-tenth of its weight of tar, may 
be used for the same purpose. 

When the disease appears in summer, flies will be troub- 
lesome ; and, therefore, in such case, some small portion 
of tar, sulphur, or tobacco, should be contained in the 
Ointment or lotion, which is applied externally. 

Prevention of Erysipelas. Occasionally this complaint 
is very severe, and, in some countries, assumes the ap- 
pearance of an epidemic ; and, in some cases, it may be 
contagious. It will be proper, therefore, in all cases, to 
separate the animals affected from the rest of the flock, un- 
til they are restored. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 341 

BLACK MUZZLE. 

" There is a disease known as the " black muzzle," a 
pimpled or scabby eruption about the nose of the sheep, 
sometimes extending up to the eyes and ears, encircling 
the former and covering the latter." — (Youatt.) This 
disease, also, sometimes begins at the corner of the mouth 
and the lips become swollen. It probably arises from some 
constitutional derangement ; and hence ears which are con- 
tinually scabby or scurvy, are indicative of some defect 
in the constitution. A correspondent of the Albany Culti- 
vator (vol. 7, pa. 48) thus speaks concerning it. " It gen- 
erally commenced in one corner of the mouth and spread 
over the lips, and the lips swelled to the thickness of a 
man's hand. My flock consisted of about 300, and in the 
space of about three weeks, about forty died of the distem- 
per, and not one had recovered. By this time, at least one 
half of the remainder of the flock were attacked. It oc- 
curred to me, that tar would be as likely as anything to 
give relief. I accordingly had my sheep brought together, 
and filled their mouths, and daubed on their lips, all that 
could be made to stick, and, to my surprise, it affected an 
immediate cure. I lost but two or three afterwards, and 
these were nearly dead when 1 made the application. In 
a few days every sheep was well." 

An ointment of hog's lard and sulphur, applied to the 
parts affected will also affect a cure ; but tar is the most 
convenient remedy. 

Prevention. From the above description of this com- 
plaint, and its progress, it appears to be quite contagious. 
Consequently, those which are affected with it, should be 
separated from the rest of the flock, until they are restored. 

SCAB OR ITCH. 

This disease is of two distinct kinds. One kind is, that 
which arises from some irritating quality of food, or from 
constitutional derangement. Mr. Youatt says, " a sheep is 
observed to scratch himself in the most furious manner, 
and with scarcely a moment's intermission. He rubs him- 
self against every projecting part of the hedge, and every 
post, and the wool comes off in considerable flakes. When 
he is caught, there is no appearance whatever of cutaneous 
disease." Mr. Young says that, " the sheep rub themselves 



342 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

in all attitudes — they have clear skins without the least 
sign of scab — never observed that it was catching — and the 
better the food the worse they become." 

Treatment. In such cases, if the disease arises from a 
bad quality of food, a change of pasture or food will be apt 
to relieve the animal. If this does not give relief, there 
will probably be some constitutional derangement. There- 
fore, administer a purgative of one ounce of Epsom or 
Gluuber salts ; and, if necessary, repeat the dose at inter- 
vals of two or three days. If the weather is warm, the 
sheep should be thoroughly washed with soap and water, 
or with brine of common salt. But if the weather is cold, 
it will be necessary to depend upon purgatives, and proper 
changes of food, together with the necessary condiments 
combined with a small proportion of sulphur. 

The other kind of itch, which is more generally known 
by the name of the seal), is similar to the itch in man, and 
to the mange in cattle, horses, &c, and is caused by para- 
sitic insects belonging to the Acari, or mite tribe, exceed- 
ingly minute in size, and living in the skin of the animals 
with which they are brought in contact. 

The origin and economy of this class of insects have at- 
tracted much attention from naturalists. It is well known 
that their origin is sometimes owing to the peculiar state of 
the animal system of the animal in which they are found ; 
yet, when brought into existence, they have the same dif- 
ference of sex, and in their propagation are governed by 
the same laws as animals of higher orders. 

The most rational conjecture as to the formation of the 
itch insect, and that of some other parasitic animals, is, 
that they arise from the want of some ingredient which is 
necessary in the animal system ; though as to how they 
are formed, we are entirely in the dark. 

And it would seem, that the itch insect arises from a want 
of a proper supply of sulphur in the animal system. In 
support of this theory, the experience of Mr. E. C. Genet 
will be in point. In the tenth volume of the old series of 
the Cultivator, printed at Albany, page 170, it is stated that 
Mr. Genet fed some weak but valuable sheep with milk. 
Their restoration was complete, and while the rest of the 
flock suffered with scab, these sheep (which it would seem 
would be most apt to have it,) were entirely exempt from it. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 343 

And the true reason why milk had this effect, is, that it 
contains in itself every element which is necessary to sus- 
tain life ; and among other things, a full proportion of sul- 
phur, wfiich is necessary to all graminivorous animals. 
That sulphur was the ingredient which produced this ef<- 
feet, will more fully appear from the experience of Mr. Ed- 
ward Wait, of Orange county, N. Y. (Am. Agriculturist, 
vol. ii, pa. 277.) He repeatedly cured the scab in sheep, 
merely by placing flour of sulphur mixed with salt, in 
troughs where they could come and eat it at pleasure. 
These different experiments show, that the itch insect of the 
sheep canuot exist, and, of course, cannot be formed, where 
there is proper supply of sulphur in the animal system. 

These insects are no larger than the hole formed by a 
pin or needle of a medium size. They burrow under the 
skin, producing great irritation, and when the pustule dries, 
they leave it for another part, and thus propagate it by con- 
tact with another animal. The mode in which this is ac- 
complished, has been pointed out by M. Waltz, a German, 
as follows : " If one or more female acari are placed on 
the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root 
of it, and bury themselves in the skin ; the place at which 
they penetrated being scarcely visible, or only distinguish- 
ed by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelvth day, a 
little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin 
changes its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pus- 
tule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day 
breaks, and the mothers again appear with their little ones 
attached to their feet, and covered by a portion of the 
shell of the egg, from which they have just escaped. These 
little ones immediately set to work, and penetrate the 
neighboring skin, and bury themselves beneath it, and find 
their proper nourishment, and propagate, until the poor an- 
imal has myriads of them to prey on him, and to torment 
him; and it is not wonderful that he should speedily sink. 
Some of the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a 
sheep, and they, too, burrowed their way, and disappeared 
for a while, and the pustule, in due time, arose ; but the 
itching and scab soon disappeared without the employment 
of any remedy. 

" It, therefore, appears necesary, that both sexes of the 
acari should be present, in order to propagate the disease 



344 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



to any extent, and then such are the prolific qualities of 
the female, (from eight to fifteen being produced at a litter) 
that we cannot wonder that the disease should spread so 
extensively." 

" Mr. Waltz found that the young acari, kept in a dry 
place, dried and crumbled to dust ; but when old, that it 
would retain its life through the winter ; thus proving the 
necessity of not relying on the season for its destruction, 
but on preparations of active medicine, when the disease 
shows itself." 



Fig 2. 




c c 

Fig. 1, The female, of 366 times the natural size, larger than the 
male, of an oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four 
behind. 

a. The sucker. 

b. b. b. b. The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices. 

c. c. The two interior hind-feet. 

d. d. The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided 
with some long hairs, and on other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. 
To these the young ones adhere when they first appear from the pustule. 

Fig 2. The male on his bac&, and seen by the same magnifying power. 



The external causes of scab are, filth and the poverty, 
which arises from exposure to cold and wet weather, or 
bad food, or contagion, which is the most usual cause. It 
spreads both by direct contact, and also by means of the 
rubbing places. For it has happened, that when a farmer 
has got rid of his tainted flock, and covered his pastures 
with a new one, the disease has broken out again. And 
this has arisen from contact of the sheep, with the old 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 345 

scratching places of fences, trees, &c. As this disease is 
very contagious, if any sheep is observed to be infected, 
it should be immediately removed from the flock ; other- 
wise, the whole flock will shortly be infected. 

Symptoms. The first symptom is, that the sheep is rest- 
less, rubbing itself against any object, nibbling itself, or 
tearing off the wool with its teeth. If closely examined, 
the skin will be found to be red and rough ; and it is ascer- 
tained that the sheep begins to rub about twelve days after 
having received the infection. Pustules will next be visi- 
ble, and in a few clays these pustules are broken by rub- 
bing, and a fluid escapes, which soon becomes dry, and 
forms the scab, which gives designation to the disease. 
The shoulders and back arc generally soonest affected by 
these pustules. On the infected part, the color of the wool 
becomes changed, and is readily noticed. The general 
health of the animal is affected, according to the extent 
and virulence of the eruption : sometimes it pines away 
and dies, exhausted by continued irritation and suffering. 

Treatment. The sheep acarus is very different in form, 
size, and color, from the human acarus. But any applica- 
tion which will destroy one, will prove fatal to the other. 
The remedy is, the destruction of the insects. 

In the treatment of this, as well as most other complaints, 
those modes are preferable which are most convenient, pro- 
vided they are effectual, and can be depended upon, and 
can be used without injury to the animal. The mode of 
treatment which has been used by Mr. Edward Wait, of 
mixing sulphur with their salt, is certainly the most conve- 
nient, and is also the safest ; sulphur, being natural lo the 
animal system, if used in moderation, cannot be injurious, 
like mineral poisons, which may destro)' the itch insect, 
but will also frequently injure or destroy the sheep to which 
they are applied. 

For this purpose, sulphur may be mixed with salt alone, 
or with salt and other condiments, and fed to them until a 
cure is effected. 

If this remedy alone fails to effect a cure, shear off the 
wool about the pustules, and remove the scab with a knife 
or probe ; after which, the diseased parts should be washed 
with soap and water ; then anoint the parts affected with 



346 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

an ointment made of the following ingredients, well mixed, 
viz : 

Lard, .... 4 lbs. 

Tar, - - - - i " 

Sulphur, .... l « 

Spirits of turpentine, - - 1 gill, 

repeating the operation, if necessary. 

Or, wash the parts affected with a decoction made by 
thoroughly boiling one pound of plug tobacco in four gal- 
lons of water ; to which add the same quantity of lime wa- 
ter, and one pint of spirits of turpentine. 

Or, dissolve five quarts of common salt in four gallons of 
a strong decoction of tobacco, made as above mentioned, 
and apply it to the parts affected. — (Cultivator, 1845 — page 
336.) 

Mercurial ointments, of various kinds, are frequently 
used for curing scab ; but mercury is injurious to sheep 
in the same manner as to man. 

1st — If a sheep gets wet, while under its influence, it 
will be very apt to be salivated or die. 

2d — If a sheep is once anointed with it, such sheep will 
never regain its constitution ; and will not keep or fatten as 
easily afterwards ; and is liable, every spring after, to peel 
off its wool from those parts that were touched with the 
mercury. — (Cultivator, 1845.) 

Prevention of Scab. This disease is most prevalent in 
cool, moist climates, or weather, and, therefore, dry and 
warm shelters, with plenty of wholesome and nutritious 
food, will be the best means of prevention. A poor sheep 
will be the first to suffer from this disease. In Scotland, 
sheep are smeared with tar and grease, in the months of 
October or November, as a defence against the weather and 
the scab, and with the best results. Where good shelters 
are provided, this operation will be unnecessary. 



SHEEP POX. 

This disease is unknown in the United States, but is not 
uncommon in France, Spain, and some other European 
countries. It consists in a pustular eruption upon the in- 
side of the thighs and arms, but extending to all parts where 
the skin is thinnest, and when severe to every part of it : 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN.' 347 

and is accompanied with febrile and other symptoms which 
run through a regular course, much like the small pox of 
man, and is highly contagious to other sheep by contact. 

" The treatment of this disease (in France) consists in 
separating the sound sheep from the diseased, being care- 
ful that, having been thus separated, they are not subjected 
to the influence of cold, or wet, or insufficient food. The 
diseased sheep are supplied with wholesome food. During 
the febrile stage, aperients of Epsom salts are administered. 
The state of fever having passed, mild tonics, as gentian 
and ginger, are administered — the Epsom salts being still 
retained, but in smaller doses. Common salt is a favorite, 
and a very useful medicine, on account of its antiseptic 
and tonic properties. 

" The practice of inoculation, so as to produce the dis- 
ease in a milder form, was introduced about the middle of 
the last century, and was so far attended with success, that, 
whereas, when the disease appeared naturally, one-half of 
a flock or upwards fell victims to its attack, in the artificial 
disease, this mortality was limited to about one in a hun- 
dred. The practice has been, in consequence, pretty gen- 
erally adopted ; and it is considered the duty of flock-mas- 
ters on the continent, when the disease appears in the 
neighborhood, to submit their sheep immediately to inoc- 
ulation." — (W. C. Spooner.) This disease is rarely pro- 
duced except in cool, moist climates. 



348 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

SECTION XLVIIL 

DISEASES OF THE FOOT 
FOOT ROT. 




A SECTION OF THE SHEEP'S FOOT. 

Showing- the interdigital gland, g. The gland, d. The duct leading 
from it." 

There are two varieties of this disease ; or rather there 
is a disease of the foot, properly speaking, and another 
disease of the fetlock and pastern joints. In the skin, im- 
mediately over the forks of the pasterns, and between the 
pasterns is placed, in the sheep, a small glandular sac and 
a tube, running from it, with an orifice to it, in the skin. 
This sac and tube lie nearly in a circular form, between 
the pasterns. The orifice of this tube is marked by a little 
tuft of hair, and should be always open. It is, however, 
frequently glued together by the strong-smelling, oily fluid 
which is secreted from this sac, and which should at all 
times have a free passage out. When this orifice is stop- 
ped up, pull out the hairs which are around it, and then 
put one finger under the foot, between the claws, and the 
thumb or finger of the other hand above the orifice, and 
press out this oily fluid, which is stopped up, and the sheep 
will soon be well, ordinarily. 

If the pressure with the thumb and finger is found insuf- 
ficient to open the orifice, it may be opened with a probe, 
and all glutinous matter or sand, or other foreign substance, 
should be extracted. And if probing alone is insufficient, 
this tube may be opened by cutting as far as may be ne- 
cessary for this purpose. It should then be dressed at in- 
tervals, with an ointment of lard and tar, or other healing 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 349 

ointment, and, if necessary, a bandage should be applied. 
But the orifice, above mentioned, should be kept open. — 
Astringent remedies, in some cases, may be necessary. 
In such case, dip a bandage into an infusion of oak bark 
or alum water, and. bind it on the parts affected. If any 
fungus flesh arises, apply a solution of burnt alum and 
sugar of lead, with a syringe, to the parts affected, when 
necessary. 

This gland and tube should never be cut out, if a cure 
can be effected without proceeding to that extremity ; for 
the oily secretion from them is designed to lubricate 
and sheath from friction the parts between the claws. 

The real foot rot, is an ulcer upon the foot, near, or 
within the horn of the hoof. This affection is caused by 
the irritation, which is occasioned by long hoofs, or by ma- 
nure, peat or muck, or other vegetable substances, lodged 
between the hoofs, or by the skin or flesh near or between 
the hoofs being cut by sharp-edged grasses, sand or stones, 
or in consequence of the sac and tube, above mentioned, 
being stopped up. 

The cause of the inveteracy of this complaint is, that 
an extra quantity of ammonia is secreted from the feet of 
the sheep, more than from the feet of other animals, and 
more than from other parts of the body. Ammonia helps 
to decompose animal and vegetable substances, and to com- 
municate such decomposition to the flesh, wherever it is 
wounded, or irritated. Hence, if sheep are pastured on 
firm lands, and with hoofs well pared, they will seldom be 
troubled with this complaint. But if they are kept in fil- 
thy stalls, and without a suitable quantity bT straw to rest 
upon, or if pastured.on mucky or peaty soils, they will be 
very apt to contract the disease ; for on such soils an abun- 
dance of sharp-edged grasses usually grow, which will 
wound the flesh or skin ; the decomposition of peat or 
muck, by the ammonia, will be communicated to the 
wounded parts, and inveterate ulcers will be formed. For 
the same reason the disease is readily communicated from 
the feet of one sheep to those of another, by means of tho 
matter of suppuration. 

Symptoms and treatment. If a sheep is observed to be 
lame in the feet, it should be examined ; and if foot rot 
has begun on, or in any part of the foot, the foot will gen- 



350 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

erally be considerably hotter, than the other feet ; which 
fact may be ascertained by comparing the lame foot with 
the other feet. It should then be ascertained what part of 
the foot is affected ; whether between the hoofs, or upon 
the external parts, or internally. Where the complaint 
begins between the hoofs, it sometimes arises from the 
stoppage of the sac and duct above mentioned. In such 
case its orifice should be opened without delay. But 
whatever may be the cause, in the first stages of the dis- 
ease, the skin between the hoofs frequently appears red 
and inflamed, and sometimes has the appearance of a scald, 
and will often form a blister, which will break. In such 
cases, the application of tar to the parts affected will gen- 
erally affect a cure. 

If an ulcer is formed between the hoofs, or near the 
hoofs, and above them, it should be first cleansed with soap 
and water ; and pulverized burnt alum or blue vitriol should 
be sprinkled upon it, and then it should be covered with tar, 
or with tar and grease ; repeating the dressings, until the 
ulcer is firmly healed. 

Or apply, with a syringe, one part burnt alum and two 
parts sugar of lead dissolved in vinegar, to the parts affect- 
ed, twice daily ; 

Or, spirits of turpentine alone until cured ; 

Or, apply muriate of antimony, (butter of antimony) 
and a few minutes after, apply white lead, and bandages, if 
necessary ; 

Or, wash the ulcer, and dress with equal parts of alum, 
copperas and charcoal ; 

Or, alum, gypsum, and charcoal ; 

Or, blue vitriol, white lead and charcoal ; 

Or, if a considerable portion of a flock is affected with 
this complaint, dissolve two, three or four pounds of blue 
vitriol in each gallon of water, more or less according to 
the violence of the complaint, and put a sufficient quantity 
of the solution into a flat-bottomed trough, which is 8 or 
10 feet long, so that the water may be about two inches 
deep in the trough, and with suitable fixtures, cause the 
flock to pass lengthwise through this trough, two or three 
times weekly, as may be found necessary, until all are re- 
stored. 

In cases where the hoof is quite hot, and no external 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 35\ 

affection is visible, it may be ascertained what parts are af- 
fected, by pressing the foot slightly with the thumb, around 
the junction of the horn and skin, and also the sole of the 
foot. The seat of the abscess will be made known, by the 
wincing motion of the foot. If the abscess is within the 
horn of the hoof, the horn of the hoof should be pared 
away, so as to bring the diseased parts to view ; for in such 
cases, the horn will shortly be reproduced. If the abscess 
is found to be above the horn of the hoof, it will then be 
necessary to cut into the part diseased, with a keen knife, 
so as to occasion a discharge of the matter. In either of 
these cases, if the diseased parts are brought to view so that 
medicines can be conveniently applied, the ulcer may be 
treated as before mentioned. But if the ulcer is deep seat- 
ed, as it will sometimes be, and will even penetrate to, and 
among the bones of the foot, it should be washed out, by 
injecting water or soap suds into it, with a syringe ; a so- 
lution of one part burnt alum, or blue vtriol, and two or 
three parts sugar of lead (acetite of lead) in water, should 
then be syringed into the parts diseased. This treatment 
should be continued once or twice daily, until the parts 
affected are fully healed ; washing the foot from time to 
time, so as to keep it as clean as circumstancess will per- 
mit. 

If, by paring away the horn of the hoof, the parts un- 
derneath are left bare, so as to be irritated or injured by 
treading upon the ground, it will be necessary to apply 
bandages to the foot, and tie them on, after the dressings 
are completed. Each claw of the foot which is pared 
away in this manner, should have a separate bandage upon 
it, in order to prevent friction of the parts diseased, and so 
as to keep them more cool, than if both claws are enclosed 
by one bandage. For this purpose, bandages of linen or 
cotton cloth will be most suitable ; and these must be kept 
on until horn is reproduced, so as to protect the parts af- 
fected. 

When the disease has been very severe, so as to pene- 
trate to the bones or joints, it will be very difficult to effect, 
a perfect cure ; the malady, in such cases, will be subject 
to frequent returns ; frequently, at the end of six months 
or a year, the same feet will be again affected. In such 
cases, unless the animal is very valuable, it may be well 



352 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

to batcher it. No animal afflicted with foot rot, should be 
permitted to rejoin the flock until perfectly restored. 

Prevention of Foot Rot. Sheep which are affected with 
foot rot, should be kept by themselves ; they can then ba 
examined more conveniently, and the contagious influence 
of the complaint may be avoided. In some soils and cli- 
mates, this complaint does not seem to be particularly con- 
tagious, and is an easily managed disease ; but in others, 
it is extremely contagious ; even on high mountains and 
dry pastures, the complaint is sometimes very prevalent. 

Sometimes the disease is contracted merely by sheep 
passing along in the same road, or by being pastured in a 
pasture where sheep, diseased with foot rot, had been pas- 
tured, and removed a month previous to the well sheep's 
being turned into it; or by their being put into the same 
yard or pen, where sheep, diseased with foot rot, were pen- 
ned or stabled several weeks before the well ones were in- 
troduced. And it is said that the space of time, between 
the sheep's being exposed, and the symptoms becoming vis- 
ible, varies from nine to fourteen days. 

That it is contagious, has been proved by the experi- 
ments of M. Farre, of Geneva, (in Switzerland). Out of 
32 cases, inoculated with the matter of foot rot, 20 became 
infected. In the cases where the disease was produced by 
inoculation, it was sufficiently marked to leave no room 
for doubt. The inference drawn from his experiments has 
been confirmed by those of others. Ordinarily, the matter 
of contagion is taken up by the absorbents of the feet with 
which it comes in contact. 

Wherever the circumstances are such that sheep are 
any wise predisposed to this disease, their feet should, at 
all times, be kept well pared, so that the feet may stand in 
a natural position. If the hoof is too long at the end, or on 
the sides, the upper part of the hoof will bear too heavily 
upon some of the fleshy parts above, and will cause great 
irritation, so as, without any other cause, to produce an ul- 
cer, in some cases. 

When sheep are pastured upon grounds which are apt to 
produce the disease, their feet should be pared at least four 
times a year. But, generally, it will be sufficient to pare 
them twice a year : once in April or May, and once in No- 
vember ; at which times of the year, their hoofs will gener- 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 353 

ally be softer than in midsummer or midwinter. For this 
purpose, a strong knife or a hoof-cutter will be necessary ; 
or, instead of a hoof-cutter, a fine pannel saw will be found 
convenient ; it should be oiled often. One person may 
hold the claws upon a block with both hands, while another 
saws off the toe ; or a chissel and mallet may be used for 
this purpose. After which, they should be pared, so that 
they may stand in a natural position. 

Ewes, far advanced in pregnancy, should not be set up 
on end in order to pare off their hoofs ; placing them in 
such a position, when they are weak, will sometimes cause 
abortion. 

In order to prevent foot rot in winter, spread straw in 
their sheds or stalls, so that their feet may be kept dry, and 
free from manure. 

In summer, pasture them on lands which are free from 
mucky or peaty deposits ; hilly lands, which are merely 
moistened by running water, do not produce the disease. 
And keep them from fields on which infected sheep have 
run, until after the frosts or rains have destroyed the con- 
tagion. 

If pasturage lands appear to produce the disease, a quan- 
tity of lime, or gypsum, or charcoal pulverized, and depos- 
ited about their box of condiments, will be very useful in 
preventing the disease, by neutralizing the ammonia, which 
is continually produced, and excreted from their feet. In 
such case, their box of condiments, and, also, the lime, 
gypsum, or charcoal, should all be under shelter, so that 
the rain cannot fall upon them. If the disease is among 
the flock, when they are brought to their stalls, gypsum or 
charcoal may be sprinkled in their stalls, for the same pur- 
pose. And for this purpose, charcoal is one of the best 
and least expensive articles which can be used. Dried 
charcoal will absorb 90 times its bulk of ammonial gas ; 
which is a greater quantity than any other substance has 
been found capable of absorbing. Charcoal is an article to 
which sheep seem to be partial. If there is a pile of half- 
burnt and half-charred logs in afield, they will be sure to 
make a resting place by the side of them. Pasturing sheep 
in newly burnt fallow fields, has been found very benefi- 
cial in foot rot. — (See Genesee Farmer, 1838, "pa. 95.) 

The constitutions of short-wooled breeds of sheep, 



354 DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

whether their wool be coarse or fine, are adapted to dry up- 
lands, on which foot rot seldom prevails to any great ex- 
tent, except by means of contagion; and hence, when pla- 
ced upon rich level or lowlands, they are far more liable 
to this disease than long coarse-wooled breeds-, whose feet 
and qualities are far better adapted to such lands. 



SECTION XLIX. 

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

The eyes of sheep, like those of other animals, are lia- 
ble to inflammation from various causes ; from the pollen 
of flowers, or other minute substances lodged in them ; 
from an undue determination of blood towards the head, by 
over-driving, or over-worrying, or over- feeding; or from 
some constitutional derangement. 

If the eye appears to be affected, it should be examined, 
and all foreign substances which are between the eyes and 
the eye-lids, should be carefully removed with a probe, or 
with a piece of fine silk cloth, or by washing the eyes with 
water. After which, a drop or two of laudanum, or lauda- 
num diluted with four times its weight of water, may be 
dropped into the eye twice or thrice daily, until the inflam- 
mation is subdued. 

If the eye is inflamed by over-driving, worrying, or 
over-feeding, administer a dose of Epsom or Glauber salts, 
and wash the eye three or four times daily with cold water. 
If necessary, repeat the dose of Epsom salts, and feed mod- 
erately, until the inflammation is subdued. 

Sometimes a considerable portion of a flock is afflicted 
with sore and inflamed eyes, particularly at the latter end 
of the year, or in spring, when the weather has been cold 
and moist for a long time. 

In such cases, the inflammation is moderate, but the eyes 
are weak, and a white film gradually spreads over the eyes, 
which the animal sometimes keep closed. At first a wa- 
tery fluid, and afterwards, a thicker mucus matter is 



worms. 355 

discharged from them, and the film increases, until the 
whole of the eye is of a pearly whiteness, is blind. 

In such cases, the inflammation will sometimes abate, 
even if nothing is done, and the eye begins to clear, usu- 
ally commencing at the upper part of the eye, and gradu- 
ally proceeding downward, until the whole of the organ is 
once more transparent. 

In such cases, when a film is perceived to be growing up- 
on the eye, or obscuring the eye-sight, drop a little finely 
pulverized burnt alum upon the parts most affected, once or 
twice daily. This will remove the film without injury to 
the eye. Or, drop a few drops of molasses into the eye 
once or twice daily ; the oxalic acid, which is in the mo- 
lasses, will remove the film without pain to the animal. 



SECTION L. 
OF WORMS. 

Worms are frequently generated within the sheep. 
They probably arise from a want of a sufficient supply of 
common salt, (chloride of sodium), in the animal system. 
This will appear from the treatment and mode of preven- 
tion, which are necessary. 

WORMS IN THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE. 

" Worms in the windpipe cause great irritation, and pro- 
duce a species of bronchitis, wiih a discharge of mucus 
from the nose, and a cough which is frequent and distres- 
sing. This disease is more common with young cattle, 
from their being more exposed to wet and woody pas- 
tures ; and when sheep are thus afflicted, it is confined to 
young animals." 

Treatment. " The same means should be resorted to, 
as are employed with success in young cattle; and for 
which we are indebted to Mr. .Mayor, of New-Castle-un- 
der-Lyne. Lime water, half a pint for a sheep, and a 
quarter for a lamb, should be given in the morning ; 



356 worms. 

and in the evening one or two large teaspoonfuls of 
salt, dissolved in a quarter to half a pint of water. This, 
treatment should be continued for a week, or until the 
improvement becomes very decided." — (W. C. Spooner.) 
Prevention. It is very evident, that if lime water and 
salt will destroy worms, under such circumstances, a suit- 
able supply of salt and lime, as condiments to the sheep, 
will prevent their formation. In the above prescription, 
salt is the principal efficient remedy. 

FLUKE WORMS. 

a- 




The Fluke Worm — a, the mouth ; b, the reproductive apparatus; c, e, 
vessels for the distribution of the blood. 

The Fluke — the Fasciola of Linnseus — the Distoma 
hepaticum of Rhodolphi, is found in the billiary ducts of 
the .sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, 
the hog, the dog, the rabbit and various other animals, and 
even in the human being. It is flat and oval, and of a 
brownish yellow color. It is from three quarters of an 
inch, to an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third 
to half an inch in greatest . breadth. The head is of a 
pointed form, round above, and flat beneath ; and the 
mouth opens laterally, instead of vertically. There are 
no barbs or tenacula, as described by some authors. Mr. 
Morton was unable to discover any eyes ; and it is not 
probable that these residents of a locality never penetrated 
by light, actually possess any. 

Origin of Flukes. " The fluke worm has been found 
by Frommen, in the foetus of the sheep, into which it 
could not have been conveyed by transmission from tho 
mother, as there is no direct vascular communicationj be- 
tween the fostus and the mother." — (Blacklock.) 

This circumstance shows that the fluke worm is formed 






wohms. 357 

within the animal. How they are formed we can no more 
determine, than how the itch insect is formed. " Each 
worm is bisexual, or hermaphrodite ; on which account 
they multiply with great rapidity. They produce eggs 
to be hatched while floating in the bile. They are found 
only in the gall bladder, and the ducts which lead to it. 
In these they are often found in such numbers, as to cause 
great distension, and, in some instances, the irritation pro- 
duced by them leads to the thickening of the walls of the 
gall bladder, and to deposition of calcarious matter between 
its tioats ; frequently also to complete obliteration of por- 
tions of the ducts. Hence the crackling sound some- 
times perceived, when handling the liver of a rotten 
sheep." 

These last observations are by Blacklock. In Ameri- 
ca, such quantities of fluke worms are a circumstance en- 
tirely unknown. I have examined great numbers of sheep, 
which had died of rot, and which always had plenty of 
salt, without finding a solitary fluke worm. But as a prop- 
er supply of salt is not generally afforded to sheep in Eu- 
rope, and as fluke worms have usually been there found an 
attendant upon rot, they have been more noticed than they 
deserved. They are only an attendant upon rot ; they 
may exist with or without it. 

Treatment. It is not probable that we can know, to any 
certainty, whether fluke worms exist in the liver of a sheep. 
But if it is suspected that a sheep is troubled with them, 
give one and a half ounces of common salt, in three quarters 
of a pint of water, to a sheep, on an empty stomach, for 
three or four mornings. The sheep should be kept from 
eating during the night preceding each dose. This is said 
to be an effectual remedy. — (Cultivator.) 

Prevention of Fluke Worms. A regular supply of com- 
mon salt. 



358 FLIES AND TICKS. 



SECTION LI. 

FLIES AND TICKS. 

During the summer months, sheep are much annoyed 
by the various species of maggot flies, and the Oestrus Ovis. 
These flies are most abundant in woody localities. These 
maggot flies deposit their eggs upon the sheep, selecting 
for that purpose a wound, or sore, or filthy parts about the 
tail, or about the horns, or even in the wool, when it-is 
moistened by warm damp weather, especially on breeds 
which have not much yolk. The maggots being hatched, 
burrow in the skin or flesh, causing severe irritation, and 
frequently produce extensive and troublesome wounds, 
which sometimes destroy the sheep, by the irritation and 
fever which they produce, in the course of a short time ; 
and, therefore, when struck by the fly, they should be at- 
tended to without delay. 

Treatment. The wool should be cut off around the 
parts, where the maggots are deposited ; then dislodge 
them with a knife or probe ; or apply spirits of turpentine 
to the parts affected ; the maggots will soon crawl out and 
perish. Apply tar and grease, or white lead and oil to the 
corroded parts from which they have been removed. 

Maggots may be dislodged by applying honey to them, 
when spirits of turpentine would be ineffectual. — (J. S. 
Skinner.) 

" As a local application, imediately after the sheep has 
been struck, white lead is one of the best, and it will also 
1 act as a preventive. In using it, while one person, holds 
the sheep by the head, let another open the wool, and hav- 
ing ready a pepper box, containing pulverized white lead, 
scatter it among the wool, wherever there is any appear- 
ance of maggots or slight wounds made by them." 

Prevention. Clip off all tag locks, and apply to any 
parts, which are particularly liable to wet or filth, portions 
of a mixture of five parts lard, and one part tar, or sulphur 
or white lead. Flies are very apt to deposit their eggs 
about the roots of the horns of rams, whether the skin 
is abraded by fighting or not. Many valuable rams are 
destroyed by maggots thus produced. Therefore, imme- 



FLIES AND TICKS. 359 

diately after shearing, tar should be daubed around the 
roots of their horns, and between them. 

THE GAD FLY, (CESTEIS OVIS.) 




These flies somewhat exceed half an inch in length, and 
are nearly a quarter of an inch in breadth, when full grown. 
The figures in the above cut are taken from Mr. Youatt's 
treatise. Fig. No. 1 shows the larva or bot of the (Estris 
ovis half grown ; 2, the same at its full growth ; 3, the 
(Estris ovis in the pupa state ; 4, the (Estris in its perfect 
state, giving a full length view of it. 

These flies deposit their eggs on the inside of the nos- 
trils, which the sheep endeavor to prevent by holding down 
their heads, and flocking together. If a fly of this kind ap- 
pears near, they strike violently with their fore feet, and, 
at the same time, plunge their noses into the dust. When 
the fly succeeds, the sheep exhibits the greatest uneasiness, 
shakes it head, snorts, stamps with its feet, and runs off fu- 
riously to some dusty spot or protected corner. The at- 
tacks of this fly continue from May to October. Some- 
times a dozen maggots are placed in one sheep's nose ; but 
not often more than three or four in one season. 

The eggs thus deposited are soon hatched, and the young 
maggots crawl Up the nostrils, in doing which, they pro- 
duce great irritation, which causes the sheep to sneeze and 
shake its head. They enter the frontal and other sinuses 
connected with it, where they remain, increasing in size 
until the following spring, feeding on the mucus which is 



360 FLIES AND TICKS. 

secreted by the membranes which line those cavities. At 
some time between the middle of April and the end of July, 
the larvse attain their full growth, and then make their exit 
from these sinuses, and crawl down the nostrils ; in doing 
which, they prove a source of great irritation, causing the 
sheep to sneeze and shake their heads. 

The maggot then burrows in the ground or rubbish of the 
sheep-yard; its skin gradually shrinks and hardens, and it 
is soon formed into the chrysalis. In from forty to sixty- 
three days, according to the experiments of Valasnieri, the 
perfect transformation takes place, and the fly comes out. 
Though most of the worms leave the head of the sheep to 
undergo transformation, it is certain that all do not : for 
shells of the chrysalis are sometimes found in the sheep's 
head, showing that some reach the fly state before leaving. 
The fly will live two months after it is produced, but like 
a butterfly, it is supposed that it takes no nourishment of 
any kind. After the two sexes have copulated, the male 
dies after a few hours or days ; sometimes,- however, hav- 
ing impregnated a second or third female : but the female 
lingers until she has found a proper receptacle for her ova, 
when she also expires. 

In most cases, the worm leaves the sheep's nostrils with- 
out producing serious injury ; but sometimes they are very 
injurious. Tney destroy the sheep by the long continued 
irritation and inflammation which they create in the nasal 
sinuses. 

Symptoms of Worms in the Head. The eyes sink in 
and look glassy, the ears lop, the head droops, the nostrils 
discharge more than usual, and, in the last stages, bloody, 
watery matter frequently runs from the nose : the animal 
becomes poor, with a good appetite, and the best of keep- 
ing, and, in the last stages, is generally troubled with di- 
arrhoea. 

Treatment. — To destroy worms in the head, mix a pound 
of scotch snuff with eight quarts of water — a half gill of 
this mixture will be sufficient for each nostril, if the opera- 
tion is performed in the fall season, when the worms are 
young. Throw it up each nostril by means of a syringe. 
This operation is most conveniently performed by thrust- 
ing the nose of the sheep into a hole made through a board, 
which is fastened to a post, and made sufficiently large to 



TICKS AND LICE. 361 

receive the nose of the sheep two-thirds of its length from 
the eyes to the nose. The board keeps the head steady, 
so that there is no difficulty in performing the operation. 
A decoction of tobacco is used by some persons for the 
same purpose; and others blow tobacco smoke into each 
nostril, with good effect in such cases. 

Another remedy is — mix equal proportions of spirits of 
turpentine and oil (sweet oil or linseed oil), and inject a ta- 
ble spoonful or less of the mixture into each nostril. These 
processes will disable the worms, and cause ihe sheep to 
sneeze so as to expel them. 

Sulphur is offensive to some other parasitic insects of the 
sheep ; and hence, the feeding of it, in moderate quantities, 
to sheep thus affected, may destroy or dislodge the worms 
from the nasal sinuses, when other means fail. 

Prevention of Worms in ike Head. With a wooden 
spatula, smear a streak of tar from the end of the sheep's 
nose up to the wool between the eyes. This operation 
should be repeated upon each sheep, once in two or three 
weeks, from May till frosts appear in autumn. This is the 
best mode of prevention ; but it should be thoroughly done, 
and regularly attended to. As soon as the lambs are weaned, 
tar should be smeared upon their noses also, in the same 
manner. If sheep are kept in first rate condition as to 
flesh, they will the more readily avoid this fly by their ac- 
tivity, and if the worms are deposited in their nostrils, they 
will be the better able to endure the irritation caused by them. 

TICKS AND LICE. 

The sheep louse is of a brownish red color, with a flat 
body, and three legs on either side. The tick has also 
three legs on "each side; but it has a large round body, 
with a small chest and head, which it buries deep in the 
skin, and by which he holds so fast as to be with difficulty 
torn olf. The lice are propagated by means of eggs or nits. 
The origin of the tick is not so well understood. They 
are both injurious to the wool and to the health of the ani- 
mal, on account of the constant irritation which they pro- 
duce. 

The louse is more injurious than the tick. The tick on- 
ly buries its head in the skin ; but the lice burrow and form 
their nest in or under it ; they collect together, and a scab 



362 TICKS AND LICE. 

soon rises, whence a glutinous matter proceeds. The scab 
continues to increase until it is of the size of a sixpence, 
and undermines and destroys the wool, and portions of the 
fleece come off in patches. The itching then becomes in- 
tolerable ; the sheep rub themselves against everything 
within their reach, and tear out locks of wool with their 
mouths. 

Lice and ticks infest sheep of all ages, but are most trou- 
blesome to lambs. 

Treatment. The most convenient mode of destroying 
jicks, is, to feed sulphur to animals thus afflicted. For this 
purpose, feed to each hundred sheep, weekly, 10 or 12 
ounces of flour of sulphur mixed with their condiments ; 
or, feed the same amount of sulphur to them weekly in 
small doses, mixed with their provender, until the ticks are 
destroyed, which will generally be effected within three or 
four weeks. The sheep should be examined, and as soon 
as the desired effect is obtained, the sulphur should be with- 
held from them. Sulphur is a relaxing article, and while 
they are using it, they will be more subject to take colds 
than at other times, and, consequently, the most proper 
time for killing ticks in this manner, is in cold, dry wea- 
ther in winter, or in warm, dry weather in summer, when 
the sheep is well covered with wool ; but not immediately 
after they are shorn. This method has been used success- 
fully. 

Another method of destroying them when the wool is 
long, is, by fumigation with tobacco. Take a canister of 
copper, sheet-iron, or tin, made at one end to fit the nose 
of a bellows, and having at the other end a small pipe, for 
the escape of the smoke. Fill the canister with tobacco, 
put in a coal of fire, and fasten the canister to the bellows' 
pipe, around which there should be wrapped some damp 
tow or cloth, to make it fit tight. One person should hold 
the sheep and open the wool, and another should blow the 
smoke with the bellows. The wool should be opened in 
Jines or furrows around the body, from six to eight inches 
apart. As the wool is opened, the pipe of the canister should 
be applied close to the skin, the wool closed around, and 
slightly compressed at the surface with/the hands ; and, at 
the same time, a puff given with the bellows. This will 



DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 363 

keep the smoke close to the animal's body, and nearly 
every tick will be killed. — (Cultivator.) 

Or, open the wool in lines or furrows, and sprinkle snuff 
or flour of sulphur among the wool. 

Or, in a few days after the sheep are sheared, the ticks, 
being deprived of protection on the sheep, will resort to the 
lambs, whose wool will then be sufficiently grown to afford 
them a covering ; if, at this time, the lambs are dipped in a 
decoction of tobacco, the ticks may be exterminated at 
once. 

For this purpose, make use of one pound of tobacco for 
every six gallons of water — five pounds of tobacco will be 
sufficient for one^ hundred lambs. Chop the tobacco fine, 
and boil it in the water uutil its strength is fully extracted. 
After which, put the decoction into a large tub or kettle ; 
on the side of which, fasten a board on which the lambs 
may rest after their immersion, in order that the liquor may 
drain from them into the kettle or tub. The lambs should 
be held by the head with both hands, and then dipped into 
the decoction up to the ears, using special care that none 
of the decoction passes into the eyes or mouth. 

Or, if the lambs are dipped in a strong solution of com- 
mon salt in water, the ticks will mostly die, or will drop 
off. The salt will also have a good effect upon their skins. 
—(See Cultivator, 1845.) 

Good keeping during the summer months, is a great pre- 
ventive against the influence of flies and ticks. 



SECTION LII. 

DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 
ABORTION. 

Abortion occurs at all periods of pregnancy, but is most 
frequent, when the ewe is about half gone. When sheep 
are in some measure afflicted with the rot, it also frequently 
occurs a short time previous to the full period for their 
lambing. 



364 DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 

Causes of Abortion. These are, sudden fright ; jump- 
ing over hedges or ditches ; being worried by dogs ; blows, 
or strains of the back or abdomen ; the too free use of 
common salt; also, the unlimited use of turnips, or other 
succulent food; confinement to wet pastures during fall or 
winter; or anything which more than usually relaxes the 
system. Hence, sheep affected with rot, are very liable to 
abortion ; and abortion is more common after a wet fall 
and winter. 

Symptoms of Abortion. The symptoms first manifested 
are, dullness, and refusal to feed ; the ewe will be seen mo- 
ping at a corner of a fold or field, and will be heard to bleat 
more than usual. To these symptoms succeed restlessness, 
and often trembling with slight labor pains, and in the course 
of twelve hours, abortion will have taken place. Some- 
times the pans will be so relaxed, that the uterus, or vagina, 
will become inverted, and the expulsion of the placcuta 
will precede that of the foetus. Aborted lambs are gener- 
ally dead when dropped. 

Treatment af the Ewe. If the ewe is apparently much 
injured, she should be placed in a sheltered situation, but 
should be allowed plenty of fresh air ; and the following 
medicines, with some nourishing gruel : 

Epsom salts, \ ounce. 

Tincture of Opium, - - 1 drachm. 

Powdered Camphor, - -. \ do. 

The two latter medicines may be repeated for one or 
more following days, as may be found necessary ; but not 
the salts, unless the bowels are constipated. The immedi- 
ate cause of death, in fatal cases, is inflammation of the 
uterus, or womb. — (W. C. Spooner.) 

Prevention of Abortion. When many cases of abortion 
occur, it frequently arises from some quality of their food 
or pasture. In such cases, the ewes should be confined to 
a full supply of good hay and water, or dry pasture fields, 
with a moderate allowance of grain. Ewes which have 
suffered abortion, should be removed from the rest of the 
flock, and the aborted lambs should be buried. 

INVERSION OF THE UTERUS. 

Though this occasionally takes place in the ewe at any 



i 



DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 365 

period, from sudden severe exertion or straining hard, yet 
it is most frequent immediately or very shortly after partu- 
rition. Tn this case, it arises from the violent spasmodic 
action of the womb, which turns inside out, and protrudes 
from the sheep. The womb is also sometimes forced out 
of the orifice, when great force has been used in extracting 
the lamb. No time should be lost in replacing it. If ne- 
cessary, the womb should be cleansed with warm water. 
The ewe should then be placed on her back, with her hind 
feet elevated, and the hands being well lubricated with oil, 
the uterus should be gently forced back into its natural 
place by a person having a small hand. Gentle and con- 
tinued pressure will effect this much sooner than the appli- 
cation of the greatest force. When it is returned to its nat- 
ural place, the lips of the orifice should be secured bypass- 
ing through them a piece of fine wire, and twisting it, so as 
to keep them together until the animal is fully restored ; 
otherwise, it may again protrude. Twenty or thirty drops 
of laudanum should then be given to the ewe in a pint of 
gruel, and the ewe should be kept perfectly quiet, till fully 
restored; repeat the dose of laudanum, if necessary. If 
the uterus is thus returned before it has been much bruised 
or inflamed by hanging out, there will be little danger to the 
mother, and she may suckle her lamb as usual. When she 
has accomplished that, she should be fattened ; for the 
same accident would almost certainly happen to her at her 
next parturition. 

HEAVING, OR AFTER-PAINS. 

The ewe is occasionally subject to after-pains, especially 
if she is in high condition, or if much force has been used 
in extracting the lamb. The spasmodic pains arise from 
the violent contraction of the womb, and the effort of na- 
ture to restore it to its natural size ; and though, to a cer- 
tain extent, it is a healthy operation of nature, it often pas- 
ses beyond the bounds of health, and becomes disease, and 
exhausts and destroys the animal. 

Symptoms. The first symptom is, generally, a frequent 
and painful disposition to expel her urine, which is highly 
colored and bloody ; she breathes quick, lies down, and ap- 
pears to have spasmodic pains ; her ears droop, and she 
takes no notice of her laTnb ; on pressing her hind parts she 



366 DISEASES OF PARTURITION. 

yields and almost sinks to the ground ; and if she moves, 
it is with much pain and difficulty. The hind parts often 
swell, and mortification follows, when the pain, in a great 
measure, ceases, but is soon followed by death. 

Treatment. When the pains are not inordinate, it is 
better not to interfere with nature ; but when otherwise, 
twenty or thirty drops of laudanum, mixed with gruel, 
should be given, and repeated once in two or three hours, 
until the pains abate ; increasing or diminishing the dose, 
as may appear necessary, according to the size and condi- 
tion of the ewe. 

GARGET. 

This is an inflammatory affection of the udder. It is 
generally produced by the death of a lamb, and the milk 
of the ewe becoming coagulated. But it may also be pro- 
duced by some constitutional derangement, or by cold and 
wet lair, or by the ewes taking cold in any manner. 
Hence, pulling or shearing off too much of the wool which 
grows about the udder, will have a tendency to produce 
garget, if the weather be frosty. 

Garget will be first denoted by disinclination or refusal 
to suckle the lamb; and one or more of the teats will be 
found wholly or partially enlarged, and knots or tumors 
will be felt. 

Treatment. If garget arises from the death of one of the 
lambs, the other lamb should be made to suck both teats, 
and this will generally afford relief. If it arises from other 
causes, the udder should be well washed with strong brine 
of common salt; or, apply to the udder a mixture of opo- 
deldock and a small proportion of laudanum ; or ointment 
of lard and bittersweet. If the inflammation runs high, an 
ounce of Epsom salts or common salt, and one drachm of 
ginger, mixed with water or gruel, should be given to the 
ewe. At the same time, the lamb should suck her, or the 
milk should be drawn from her by hand. If the swelling 
continues, and matter forms, the abscess should be opened 
by a free incision, and the escape of the pus should be as- 
sisted by pressure. If the wound becomes foul, it should 
be washed out with water, applied with a syringe, and a so- 
lution of one part burnt alum and three parts sugar of lead 
should then be applied to it, in the same manner, twice 



DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. 367 

daily; and, if necessary, apply some healing ointment in 
addition. 

When some portion of the udder becomes schirhus, hard, 
from the effects of garget, so that the ewe cannot give a 
full supply of milk, she should no longer be used for breed- 
ing. 



SECTION LIII. 

DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. 
COAGULATION OF THE MILK. 

All the milk which is swallowed by the young lamb, is 
first coagulated in the stomach by the power of the gastric 
juices, as by rennet in making cheese; after which, it is 
digested by means of the same gastric juices. Therefore, 
whenever the quantity of milk taken by the lamb, is so 
great that the gastric juices are only able to coagulate it, 
without digesting it, the whey is separated from the curd, 
as in the process of making cheese, and passes off through 
the bowels by a light colored diarrhoea; and, at the same 
time, the curd remains in the stomach, and sometimes ac- 
cumulates to the amount of two or three pounds, thus pro- 
ducing a dangerous constipation. Hence, this disease can 
arise only when the ewe furnishes for the lamb more milk 
than it can digest, or milk of a bad quality. 

Sy?nptoms. When a thriving lamb, with a healthy dam, 
having a full udder, begins to be dull, and stands panting 
and distressed, with a hard and distended abdomen, and 
can scarcely be induced to move, and the faeces appear 
white, as before mentioned, or nothing passes its bowels, 
its illness probably arises from coagulation of the milk. 

Treatment. The first thing to be done, is, to administer 
a purgative of two or three drachms of magnesia, combined 
with one or two drachms of Epsom salts, or common salt, 
and a little ginger, dissolved in water, in order to dissolve 
the coagulated mass, and evacuate the stomach. The above 
dose should be repeated, in less quantities, twice or three 



368 DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. 

times, at intervals of three or four hours, combined with 
plenty of warm water, in order to carry off the dissolved 
curd. 

At the same time, the ewe should be supplied with less 
succulent food, or be turned upon shorter pasture. Also, 
it may be necessary to draw from the ewe's udder a por- 
tion of her milk daily, for a short time, until it is reduced 
in quantity, so as not to injure the lamb. 

DIARRHCEA. 

This generally arises from exposure to cold wet weather, 
or from some bad quality of the mother's milk. When it 
arises from such causes, the faeces are generally of a green- 
ish color. 

If the diarrhoea arises from the quality of the mother's 
milk, which is naturally aperient, and, in some cases, may 
be too much so, especially if she has an abundance of it, 
the ewe should be put upon drier feed or pasture ; or she 
should be dosed with xhe same medicines or condiments, aa 
if she herself was afflicted with diarrhoea ; and this will 
generally relieve the lamb. If this fails, give to the lamb 
small quantities of chalk and ginger once or twice daily, 
mixed with a little warm cow's milk, or boiled milk. The 
stomachs of young lambs are weak, and, consequently, 
small doses, at proper intervals, will have the best effect. 

Or a pinch of leached ashes, gypsum and salt, prepared 
as for full grown sheep, maybe placed in the lamb's mouth 
once or twice daily, and, in most cases, this will be a very 
effectual remedy. Indeed, young lambs will often take to 
eating this mixture before they are two weeks old. As 
soon as the diarrhoea abates, the medicine should be im- 
mediately suspended, lest costiveness should ensue. 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 369 

SECTION LIV. 

INJURIES AND OPERATIONS, 

Sheep are liable to external injuries in the form of wounds, 
fractures, bruises and strains. 

WOUNDS. 

All the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed 
under the heads of incised, punctured and lacerated. 

An incised wound is one which is made by a cutting in- 
strument, such as a knife or a piece of glass. 

Punctured wounds are those produced by sharp-pointed 
bodies, as pins or thorns. 

Lacerated wounds are those which are produced by blunt 
bodies, as the teeth of the clog, tearing rather than cutting 
the flesh. 

When a sheep has received any of these injuries, the 
following rules ought to be attended to, and in the order 
here recommended. 

1. — Arrest the bleeding, if profuse and likely to endan- 
ger life. 

2. — Clip away the wool, for a few inches around the 
parts injured. 

3, — Remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound. 

4.— Bring the separated parts as nearly together, as cir- 
cumstances will at the moment permit, and retain them 
there by a suitable apparatus. 

TO STOP BLEEDING. 

Bleeding will, if no large arteries are divided, cease, on 
the free exposure of the surface for a few minutes to the 
air, but when a large vessel has been cut, more determined 
means must be used. Pressure on the bleeding surface, 
and its neighborhood, will, in many cases, succeed. But 
this or any similar method, is far inferior to that of secur- 
ing the open vessel by a thread. To accomplish this, the 
mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out 
from the contiguous surface, by means of a small hook, 
called by surgeons a tenaculum, and easily procured form 



370 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 

any blacksmith. While the mouth of the vessel is thus 
held exposed, an assistant must surround it with a noose 
of thread, which, on being secured with a double knot, will 
effectually close it. The thread ought to be of white silk, 
though any undyed thread, which is firm, round and capa- 
ble of standing a pull, will answer the purpose. Care 
must be taken to place the thread, before tying it, fairly be- 
hind the point of the tenaculum, so as to avoid including 
the instrument within the ligaiure, a circumstance which 
would lead to the slipping of the noose, and failure of the 
operation. The hook is now to be withdrawn, and one 
end of the ligature cut off by scissors, within a little of the 
noose. The remaining threads are allowed to hang out 
of the wound, so as to admit of their removal, when they 
become loose, which does not, however, take place till the 
termination of the first four days, and they are frequently 
retained for a much longer period. At each time the 
wound is dressed, after the fourth day, the ligatures should 
be gently pulled, or, which is preferable, twisted to disen- 
gage them, if at all loose, so that the wound may be speed- 
ily closed. Before proceeding to any operation where 
bleeding is expected, the operator should provide himself 
with a few well waxed threads, each twelve inches long, 
so that no delay may ensue, on a division of large ves- 
sels. 

REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER. 

Dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge, or old 
linen rag, and warm water : Other foreign bodies may in 
general be extracted by the finger and thumb, or by a probe. 
In some cases, however, it may be necessary to enlarge 
the wound, with a fine-edged knife, in order to facilitate 
the removal of substances, which from their shape or situ- 
ation, cannot be otherwise displaced. 

CLOSURE OF A WOUND. 

The last thing to be done, is, to bring the edges of the 
wound into as accurate contact as the state of the parts 
will at the moment permit, without, however, using any 
force. This, with a little care, is readily accomplished ; 
the only difficulty being to retain them in the desired posi- 
tion. They may be held in contact, either by stitches, 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 371 

plasters, or bandages, or by an union of the three. Stitch- 
es are only required, when the wound gapes to a consider- 
able degree, as it always will do, when it runs across a 
muscle. They may be applied in the following manner : 
Transfix one side of the wound with a curved needle, 
(armed with a well waxed thread,) forcing the needle from 
without, obliquely towards the bottom of the wound ; then 
carry it through the opposite side,/rom within, taking care 
to bring it out, about the same distance from the edge, as 
that at which it entered on the other margin. The needle 
must now be removed, by cutting the threads close to the 
eye, and while the ends are allowed to hang loose, the 
same operation should be repeated at the distance of an 
inch or an inch and a half from the other stitch, as often 
as the length of the wound may render it necessary. Your 
assistant will now bring the sides of the wound together, 
as accurately as possible, and retain them there till you 
have tied the corresponding ends of the threads in a double 
knot. 

BANDAGING. 

Adhesive plaster is, in some instances of service, but, 
upon the whole, ought rather to be disposed with, being of 
difficult application, and, moreover, tending to the accu- 
mulation ot' filth, and the discomfort of the animal. Noth- 
ing will be found to serve the purpose of supporting the 
parts so well, as a properly adjusted bandage, which is use- 
ful in every instance, and serve to stay on, if sewed here 
and there to the fleece. The bandage should never be 
omitted, where the wound has any tendency to gape, as too 
great a strain upon the stitches cannot but lead to delay, in 
the healing process. 

In bandaging a limb, or part of a limb, commence al- 
ways at the foot, and proceed upwards. On other parts of 
the body, begin where you find it most convenient. Before 
applying a bandage to an injured surface, a couple of pie- 
ces of old linen or cotton cloth should be folded into pads or 
compresses, and laid one on each side of the cut, and over 
these the bandage should be rolled evenly, and with mod- 
erate and uniform firmness. By this plan, the separated 
surfaces are supported, and preserved in close juxtaposition, 



372 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 



especially at the wound, a thing of some importance where 
the wound is deep. 

Transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep require more care- 
ful and more complicated treatment than cuts in other parts, 
as there is a constant tendency of the edges to retract. The 
retraction of the edges ma}' - be, in some degree, obviated, 
by the application of a splint, which may be made of a slip 
of stiff leather, (such as is used for saddle-flaps,) well wet- 
ted, so as to be easily adapted to the form of the limb. It 
is intended to impede the motion of the leg, which occa- 
sions the gaping of the wound, and must, therefore, be 
made to pass over one or more joints, as circumstances 
may require. Tow must be laid along the surface (a sound 
one, if possible,) on which the leather is to be placed, and 
a bandage then rolled over it, so as to make all secure. 

CLEAN CUTS. 

Clean cuts, as every one knows, heal readily in a healthy 
animal, seldom demanding above three dressings. Simple 
incised wounds should, if possible, be united by the first in- 
tention. The edges of the skin should be brought together, 
and joined, by means of stitches, over which a bandage 
may be placed, and by this means, a cure is frequently ef- 
fected in a short time. 

LACERATED WOUNDS. 

Lacerations require a longer period for their reparation 
than clean cuts ; inasmuch as t the process which nature 
goes through, is more complicated. In clean cuts, the 
parts are speedily glued together so soon almost as in con- 
tact, and the union is generally complete within the first 
thirty-six hours. Not so, however, with lacerations. Here 
the parts are bruised, torn, and, perhaps, to a considerable 
degree, wanting. Some of the diseased portions may die, 
and are, of course, to be renewed. This is a process re- 
quiring great effort on the part of the vital powers, which 
are often inadequate to the task. And on this account, 
when the injury is severe, we ought to sacrifice the animal, 
rather than run the risk of its dying during the process of 
the attempted cure. 

When the wound has been cleaned and freed from all 
extraneous substances, such parts as are almost completely 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 373 

torn or squeezed off, should be removed. To replace the 
lost part, suppuration, or the formation of matter commen- 
ces ; while under cover of this, a crop of fleshy particles 
(granulations,) rises to fill the vacancy. Granulations are 
best promoted by warm emollient applications, such as 
poultices of oatmeal, linseed meal, barley flour, or wheat 
bread, which ought to be frequently renewed, to prevent 
their becoming cold or dry. Whenever the granulations 
become too luxuriant and rise, as they are apt to do, above 
the level of the skin, (i. e.) whenever it is evident, by their 
appearance, that fungus flesh is formed in the wound, the 
poultices must be laid aside ; and in order to remove the 
fungus flesh, burnt alum should be applied to it, or it may 
be washed once or twice daily, with a solution of 3ulphat 
of copper, made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue 
vitriol, in an English pint of soft water: after which, the 
sore should be covered carefully over with a pledget of 
fine tow, spread with lard, or any simple healing ointment, 
by which means a cure will easily be accomplished. 

The wounded animal should be allowed to move about 
as little as possible, and food should be rather sparingly 
given. 

In the cure of a mere wound of the skin, tar, or, with 
more propriety, a mixture of tar and grease, may be applied, 
which will speedily heal the parts affected ; but to a deep 
wound of any kind, pure tar should never be applied. It 
prevents the suppuration which is necessary to the proper 
growth of flesh. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 

The orifice being small in these, and the depth consid- 
erable, the sides are apt to adhere irregularly, and prevent 
the free escape of matter, which is certain to collect at the 
bottom. To avoid such occurrences, it is, in many cases, 
proper to convert a punctured into an incised wound. 
When, from neglecting this, the matter is denied an outlet, 
an incision must be made to allow it to escape ; otherwise, 
much harm will ensue from its burrowing between the dif- 
ferent textures. Fomentations will also here be servicea- 
ble, and should be preferred to poultices. To apply them, 
make a decoction of meadow hay, or hop vines ; dip a 
piece of flannel into the decoction when it is very hot, 



374 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 

then wring it, and double it one or more times, and apply 
it to the parts affected ; dipping the flannel again when the 
heat is gone, and continuing this application until suppura- 
tion takes place freely. After which, apply healing oint- 
ments. 

WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 

Such wounds are highly dangerous, and apt to baffle the 
most experienced. The grand object in every case, how- 
ever, where a cure is attempted, is to produce a speedy union 
of the wound, by closure and bandaging, as before directed. 

If the injury be very extensive, the best thing a far- 
mer can do, is to slaughter the animal. 

FRACTURES. 

The mending of a broken bone, though somewhat tedi- 
ous, is by no means difficult, when the skin covering the 
fracture has not been torn. Let the limb be stretched, and 
the ends of the broken bone be placed very accurately in 
contact with each other. A piece of stiff leather, or of 
pasteboard, or thin wood, wrapped in a soft rag, is then to 
be laid along the limb, so that it may extend an inch or two 
beyond the contiguous joint. Whichever of these substan- 
ces is employed, it should be carefully secured in its situa- 
tion by a bandage of linen, cotton, or flannel cloth, an inch 
and a half broad, and two yards long, or more, if necessary. 
After having been firmly rolled up. it should be passed spi- 
rally around the leg, beginning at the foot, and carrying it 
up above the end of the splint. When any considerable 
swelling appears, the bandage should be carefully slack- 
ened, and tightened again, when the swelling abates. 
When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you 
cannot do better than to open a vein of the head or neck, al- 
lowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the 
size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the 
symptoms. The exhibition of purgatives should never be 
neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either with 
gruel, or as a drench, will be found to answer the purpose 
well. If the broken bones be kept steady, the cure will be 
complete in from three to four weeks ; the process of re- 
union always proceeding faster in a young than in an old 
sheep. 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 375 

Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the 
ends of the bone protrude, recovery is very uncertain, and 
it will be a question whether it would not be better to con- 
vert the animal into mutton without delay. 

BRUISES AND STRAINS. 

Bruises and strains, unless very severe, need not be in- 
terfered with. The fetlock joint is most frequently injured 
by strains. When a severe strain or bruise happens, to 
that or other part of the limbs or body, if the weather be 
warm, no better application can be made than to apply cold 
water or cold strong brine of common salt, frequently to 
the parts affected. If the weather be cold and wintry, 
opodeldock or astringent remedies may be applied. At 
the same time, the animal should be placed where it may 
obtain food, without being compelled to move much about. 

ULCERS, ABSCESSES AND TUMORS. 

These are produced by some constitutional derangement 
or by bruises. In either case, there is a collection of pus 
or matter under the skin ; and whilst this is collect- 
ing, the surface of the skin is usually very tender, and 
sometimes there is also much constitutional irritation pres- 
ent. A collection of matter may be known by the heat, 
swelling and pain of the part. On pressing it, the contain- 
ed fluid is felt to fluctuate, and the pressure being removed, 
the part immediately assumes its former shape ; whilst a 
watery or dropsical swelling, on being pressed, leaves 
for some time the marks of the fingers. After some 
time, the abscess points ; that is, the matter can be 
more distinctly felt at one particular point, at which, if 
permitted, the abscess would burst. This, however, should 
noi be permitted ; but at this stage, a large opening should 
be made with a knife or lancet, at the lower part, or at that 
part which will admit most readily of its discharging itself. 

If the abscess is languid and slow in forming, a stimu- 
lant, such as ammonia and oil, rubbed in occasionally, will 
be useful ; or a plaster of rosin and tallow may be applied 
to it, until it it comes to a head, so that it may be lanced 
as above mentioned. 

After the pus is discharged, apply portions of lard, with 
which a small proportion of tar is mixed, together 



376 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 

with caustics, if fungus flesh arises. The tar and lard 
will keep off flies and heal the parts affected. 

If a fistula or pipe forms in an ulcer it may be discussed 
by injecting common salt into it a few times ; after which 
it may be healed as in other cases. 

Tumors may sometimes be discussed, driven away, by 
washing them with brine of common salt. 

BLOOD LETTING. 

In describing this operation, xoo much stress is always 
laid on the importance of opening particular veins, or di- 
visions of a vein, in certain diseases. Such directions are 
altogether unnecessary, as it matters not from what part of 
the animal the Hood be draivn, provided it be taken quickly. 
Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from 
a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow 
of the blood, from a large orifice. Little impression can 
be made, on an acute disease, by the slow removal of even 
a large quantity of blood, as the organs have lime to ac- 
commodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any 
good it will do, as will be dispensed with. Either bleed 
rapidly, or not at all. The nearer the commencement of 
an ailment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is 
resorted to, the greater the chance of its doinggood. No 
jime, therefore, ought to be losiin using the lancet, when 
once it is known to be required. Bleeding, by nicking the 
under surface of the tail, does very well, when no great 
deal of blood is required ; but it is not to be thought of, if 
the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened. — 
These are to be taken, in preference to a vein on the leg, 
as they are much more readily got at. 

The facial vein commences by small branches on the 
side of the face, and runs downwards and backwards to the 
base of the jaw, when it may be felt, within two inches of 
the angle, or opposite the middle grinding tooth. It is here 
that the orifice must be made ; the thumb of the left hand 
being held against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of 
blood towards the heart, will make it rise. Some prefer 
opening the jugular vein, which commences behind the 
eye, and runs down the side of the neck. This vessel is, 
however, more difficult to open than the former, being bet- 
ter covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 377 

to swell. Stringing is the mode commonly resorted to, 
for this end ; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round 
the neck, close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circula- 
tion through the vein, and render it perceptible to the fin- 
fier. A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleed- 
ing, though a well pointed knife will do at a pinch. The 
opening must always be made obliquely-; but before attempt- 
ing this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between 
the operator's legs, with it croup against a wall. The se- 
lected vein is then fixed, by the fingers of the operator's 
left hand, so as to prevent its rolling or slipping before the 
lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the 
instrument must be elevated, at the same time that it is 
pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted 
from, or cut its way out of the vein. A prescribed quan- 
tity of blood should never be drawn, for the simple reason, 
that this can never be precisely stated. If ihe symptoms 
are urgent, your best plan is, not to stop the flow of blood 
till the animal falls or is about to fall. When this occurs, 
run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish, by 
twisting round it a lock of wool. — (Blacklock.) 

Bleeding is almost never practised in the United States, 
and with ; good reason : for sheep are little subject in this 
country to those kinds of inflammatory complaints in which 
bleeding is necessary. , 

CASTRATION, DOCKING AND MARKING OF LAMBS. 

The most suitable age for castrating young lambs is, be- 
tween the tenth and thirtieth day after they are dropped.* 
The testicles will then be large enough, so that they can be 
got hold of, and yet not so large, that profuse bleeding will 
follow, in extracting them. 

Cool and dry weather should be chosen for performing 
these operations. In such weather, the wounded parts will 
generally soon stop bleeding ; whereas, if the weather is 
warm and moist, profuse bleeding sometimes takes place, 
which results in the injury or death of the lamb. 

The flock should be brought to their stalls, without hur- 
rying, so that the lambs may not be overheated. 

* In Hungary, Merino ram lambs, are usually castrated and docked 
i» their eighth week, if the weather be farorabie. — [C. L. Fleischnian.] 



378 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 

After a lamb is caught, it should be held for a little time, 
until the agitation is over. It is then to be held at a con- 
venient height for the operator. The assistant should 
be in a sitting position, and placing the back of the lamb 
upon his knees, should draw the hind legs of the lamb 
towards him, so that the scrotum may be fully exposed 
for the operator. The operator should then cut off about 
one-third or one-fourth part of the scrotum ; that is, only 
so much of the end of it should be cut off, that each testicle 
may pass out. He should then start the testicle, by means 
of his thumb and fore fingers, pressing on the abdomen 
with his other fingers. 

Next, cut a slit through the film which envelopes the 
testicle, and slit off the side ligament from it ; then draw 
the testtcle slightly, and cut off the blood vessels and sper- 
matic cord, about half an inch above the testicle. The 
generative organs of young lambs are not active, and no 
danger from bleeding will ensue, by cuiting off the blood 
vessels. Cutting them off will be less painful to the lamb 
than pulling them out; and it should be remembered, that 
lock jaw is sometimes produced, by performing this ope- 
ration with unusual violence, and by means of twisting. 
A little experience will show how much of the scrotum it 
will be necessary to cut off; and care should be used not 
to cut too much of it off; for when too large a portion of 
it is taken off, the inflammation sometimes extends into 
the bowels, and causes the death of the lamb. 

After the testicles are removed, the necessary ear marks 
should be put upon the lamb, and the tail should be cut off. 
For this purpose, lay the tail upon a block of wood, and 
cut it off with a chisel and mallet, or with an axe, which 
is a very convenient tool for this purpose. It should be 
cut off, so as to leave it only one or two inches long. The 
blood which flows, by marking the ears, and cutting the 
tail, undoubtedly contributes to prevent too violent inflam- 
mation in the scrotum : and, for that reason, docking and 
ear marking should be deferred until castration is perform- 
ed. Docking promotes cleanness of the wool, and ewes, 
which have been docked, are not liable to lose their lambs, 
by their being entangled by the tail; an accident which 
happens to long tailed ewes, oftener than most persons aie 
aware of. 



INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 379 

At the conclusion of the castration and docking, an 
ointment, made of one part tar or spirits of turpentine, and 
four or five parts of lard or oil, well mixed, should be ap- 
plied to the mutilations of the scrotum and tail. This 
ointment will promote healing of the parts mutilated, and 
will effectually keep off flies. Pure tar, (without grease,) 
should not be used for this purpose. 

The lambs should be put out of the enclosure as fast as 
each has passed the operations ; and should be kept quiet 
for an hour or two, until the blood has stopped flowing, and 
becomes concreted on the * parts- affected. After which 
they may be moved off slowly to their pasture, if it is not 
far distant. But, if convenient, they should not be moved 
far within a day or two after castration. If the weather 
be cold and wet, the lambs should have the benefit of shel- 
ters, till they are perfectly well. 

CASTRATION OF OLD RAMS. 

The following is a very safe and convenient mode of 
castration : Apply iron clams firmly to the scrotum, near 
the testicles ; then sear off or cut off the scrotum, with the 
same iron ; and sear the cords and blood vessels with the 
same iron ; after which spread over the wound a quantity 
of tar made hot with the same iron. The searing with the 
hot iron prevents any flow of blood, and the tar heals the 
wound, and keeps off flies. 

The following is also a safe mode of castration, but not 
so convenient as the foregoing : 

On each side of the scrotum, cut a slit for each testicle 
through the film which envelopes each testicle, cutting 
from the lower end of the scrotum upward just so far as 
will be sufficient, in order to extract the testicle, and no 
farther; then slip the testicle out of its envelope, and care- 
fully slit from it the ligament which adheres to it on its 
side, cutting close to the testicle as far as this ligament ex- 
tends ; after which, pull out the blood vessels and spermat- 
ic cord, together with the testicle. If the blood vessels 
are pulled out, there will be no danger of the animal's 
bleeding too much — the internal wounds, made by lacera- 
ting the blood vessels, will heal by the first intention, and the 
scrotum will be healed in the course of two or three weeks. 
But the blood vessels should not be cut off with a knife ; 



380 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 

for in such case, there will be clanger of excessive bleeding. 

Castrated rams should be examined from time to time. 
In four or five days after castration, if the scrotum appears 
inflamed, and suppuration does not appear to progress, as 
it should do, it should be washed out, and the finger should 
be passed into it, and all clotted blood or other foul matter, 
should be extracted by the finger ; a little fine salt should 
then be sprinkled into each of the wounds. This will 
cause suppuration to progress, and healing will take place 
in due time. 

If flies are troublesome, a little finely pulverized char- 
coal or sulphur should be sprinkled into the wounds, or an 
ointment composed of one part spirits of turpentine or tar, 
and ten parts lard, ma'y be applied round the edges of 
them; either mode will keep off flies. If maggots get in- 
to the scrotum, they should be probed out, or extracted by 
the finger ; otherwise the irritation and inflammation, which 
they will create, will extend up into the bowels, so as to 
cause the death of the animal. 

Tar, in its pure state, should never be applied to the 
edges of the wounds of the scrotum of rams, which are 
castrated in this manner ; it prevents the suppuration, which 
is necessary to the proper closure of the wound. 

CUTTING OFF HORNS. 

The most suitable time for this operation is. in spring or 
fall, when the weather is neither very warm nor very cold, 
and when flies are least troublesome. 

They may be sawed off most conveniently with an ordi- 
nary fine-toothed hand-saw, at the distance of two or more 
inches from the skull. After they are sawed off, and after 
the blood has, in some measure, ceased to flow, tar and 
grease, or tar alone, should be applied to the stumps of the 
horns, and bandages of linen or cotton cloth should be put 
over each of them, and tied on, so as to keep off the flies, 
and keep out the air. The tar will generally heal them, 
without any other application. But they should be exam- 
ined from time to time, and if the marrow does not heal, 
and fungus flesh arises within the pith of the horn, which 
may be known by a thin glairy running from it, equal parts 
of sugar of lead and burnt alum, dissolved in water, should 
be syringed into the hollow of the horn : after which, drop 



poisons. 331 

a little pulverized white lead into it. This operation should 
be repeated twice or three times daily, until the horn ap- 
pears to be dried up and healed. 

Some persons, after cutting off the horn, plug up the hole, 
in the end of the stump of the horn, with a smooth wooden 
plug. This excludes the air, until the internal parts are 
healed. This plan has been used successfully. 



SECTION LV. 

OF POISONS. 

ANIMAL POISONS. 

" Not unfrequently sheep are bitten by snakes. As the 
wound inflicted by these reptiles is very small, the injury 
is never perceived till the poison has entered into the sys- 
tem. Sheep are often observed to be sickly, and to swell. 
These symptoms are often attributed to braxy and rot, 
when, in reality, an adder or a viper has occasioned the 
mischief. 

" When it is suspected that a sheep has been bitten by a 
snake, doses of oil should be given, or, if at hand, small, 
but frequent doses of volatile salts (ammonia) mixed with 
water."— (Sir G. S. McKenzie.) 

The wool or hair should be cut off round the wound, 
which should then be well washed with warm water, and 
oil should be rubbed into it ; or a plaster of hog's lard and 
pulverized charcoal should be bound on to it; repeating 
these applications at intervals of three or four hours. 

New milk, fed to the sheep several times daily, has been 
found to be an effectual remedy for snake-bites. — (T. No- 
ble.) 

VEGETABLE POISONS. 

As a general rule, the use of poisonous articles, as med- 
icines for sheep or other animals, should be avoided when 
oossibie. They are more or less dangerous to persons and 



382 poisoars. 

animals, and are seldom needed by the sheep as internal 
medicine. 

The effects of poisons should be known, that they may 
be avoided. With this view, an abstract is made, from 
sundry authors of an account of sundry poisons, their ef- 
fects, and the remedies used for them. 

Mountain Laurel, (Kalmia.) The leaves of this shrub 
are highly poisonous to sheep, and in man, a small portion 
of them has produced vertigo and convulsions. There are 
two species of this Plant. 

Broad-leafed Laurel, (Kalmia Lati folia,) grows to the 
height of 8 or 9 feet — blossoms in June or July — the blos- 
soms are white, tinged with red. 

Narrow-leafed Laurel, (Kalmia Angustifolia,) called 
also Ivy, or Lamb Kill, is a low shrub — grows from three 
to five feet high — blossoms in June or July — blossoms are 
reddish variegated. 

Symptoms. W hen Laurel has been eaten by sheep, they 
appear dull and stupid ; swell a little, and are constantly 
gulping up a greenish fluid, a part of which trickles out of 
their mouths and discolors their lips. 

Treatment. One gill of cow's milk (new milk is the 
best,) should be sweetened with molasses, and turned down 
the throat of each sheep ; it will shortly operate as an 
emetic, when the animal will be relieved. Kepeat the dose, 
if necessary. 

Also, a gill of hog's lard, given in the same manner, 
will have a similar effect — repeat the dose as may be ne- 
cessary. — (Cultivator.) 

Also, strong whiskey, or whiskey and molasses, are first 
rate remedies. These remedies have been fully tested by 
drovers in passing the Allegheny mountains. 

Cherry Trees. The leaves, twigs, and kernels of the 
fruit of the various species of Cherry — such as the Com- 
mon Red and English cherries, (Prunus Cerasus,) and the 
wild red, (Prunus Virginiana,) and black cherry, (Prunut 
Nigra,) are all poisonous, on account of the Hydrocyanic, 
or Prussic acid, which they contain. 

Peach Tree. The leaves and flowers of the peach tree, 
and kernels of thft peach stone, are also poisonous, on ac- 
count of the Prussic acid which they contain. Sheep and 
cattle are frequently poisoned by feeding upon the leaTet 



poisons. 383 

of the cherry tree, and, also, sometimes by those of the 
Peach. 

Symptoms* They stagger about, and tumble upon their 
heads. 

Treatment. Ammonia was found by Mr. John Murray, 
of London, to be one of the best remedies for the poisonous 
effects of the Prussic acid. He administered fatal doses of 
it to animals, and immediately applied ammonia to their 
nostrils. They invariably recovered. 

Animals, which have been poisoned by eating cherry or 
Peach tree leaves, should be treated as if poisoned by the 
Prussic acid. 

If ammonia is administered to animals thus poisoned, it 
should be applied to their nostrils, or rubbed upon them. It 
is very acrid, and should not be given internally. 

Saint Johnswort, (Hypericum,) if eaten freely by sheep, 
produces inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fa- 
tal to lambs, and sometimes to full grown sheep. It also 
produces an irritation of the skin, and a species of scab 
about the mouth and nose, which sometimes extends over 
the body and legs. 

Treatment. Administer a purgative of linseed oil or 
hog's lard ; anoint the irritated parts with an ointment of 
lard, sulphur, and tar, as for scab. 

Prevention. Feed common salt combined with a large 
proportion of gypsum and tar. 

Groundsel, or Ragwort, (Senecio obovatus,) is a native 
of the State of New York, and is said to have proved a 
deadly poison to sheep. — (Silliman's Journal.) 

Wake Robin, (Arum Maculatum.) Flocks have been 
poisoned by this plant in England, where pastures were so 
short from drouth, that sufficient feed could not be other- 
wise obtained. — (Cultivator.) 

Juniper. The common juniper does not seem to act as 
a poison; but Mr. E. B. Brown, of Mystic, Connecticut, 
found, that when his sheep pastured freely upon juniper 
bushes, their wool fell off. — (Cultivator.) 

Sabine, (Juniperus Sabina.) This well known poison 
produces abortion. — (Beck's Med. Jurisprudence.) 

Tobacco. When a strong decoction of tobacco is applied 
externally, either to man or beast, it produces giddiness, 



384 poisons. 

retching, and vomiting. If used for killing ticks, the de- 
coction should be weak. 

Wind Flower, (Anemone.) The various species of this 
plant are poisonous, Anemone nemorosa, wind flower of 
the woods, produces dysentery in sheep. — (Beck's M. J.) 

Ergot, or Sparred Rye, is a highly poisonous article. 
It produces, in mankind, gangrene of the hands and feet, 
and sometimes of the nose ; and is sometimes accompanied 
with spasmodic symptoms. It produces abortion; and, 
therefore, rye, or ground provender, which contains much 
of this article, should be withheld from sheep, and other 
animals. — (Beck.) 

Diseased Wheat. When the farinaceous part of this 
grain becomes converted to a black powder, it produces 
colic and diarrhoea. Oats and Indian corn, similarly dis- 
eased, will, doubtless, be equally injurious. All such dis- 
eased grains should be withheld from sheep. 

Treatment. As a general rule, purgatives should be ad- 
ministered, when sheep are poisoned by vegetables. For 
this purpose, two or three ounces of linseed oil, or melted 
hog's lard, should be given at a dose. If necessary, repeat 
the doses. For this purpose, oils will be preferable to alka- 
line salts. 

MINERAL POISONS. 

Arsenic. This well known poison should never be used 
for killing ticks. It is sometimes absorbed by the skin, so 
as to destroy the sheep. — (W. C. Spooner.) 

Mercury. The use of mercurial preparations, by anoint- 
ing, is injurious to fattening sheep ; it also sometimes 
makes the wool peel off; and they are sometimes salivated 
and destroyed by it, when exposed to cold and moisture. 

Acetate of Lead, (Sugar of Lead,) taken internally, pro- 
duces vomiting, weakness and stiffness of the legs prece- 
ding death ; but is less poisonous than red lead and white 
lead. 

Sulphat of Copper, (Blue Vitriol,) taken internally, one 
ounce produces colic, convulsions, death ; should never be 
used internally as medicine for sheep. 

Sulphat of Iron, (Copperas,) is also a strong poison. 
One-fourth of an ounce was found sufficient to kill a dog in 
26 hours. It is used by physicians, in doses of from three 



LIST OF MEDICINES. , 385 

to five grains, to affect the genital organs of mankind. 
Sheep need no such medicine internally. 

Nitrate of Potash, (Sah-petre.) This is also a strong 
poison ; an ounce is sufficient to destroy the life of a man ; 
an over dose produces abortion in females. In small doses, 
it is cooling and diuretic. It is useful to the sheep only in 
case of acute inflammatory diseases. Dose, one-eighth to 
one-half a drachm. 



SECTION LVI. 



A LIST OF MEDICINES 

EMPLOYED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

Alum, As an external application, it is useful as awash or lotion, when 
applied to the mouth, in several of its diseases, and also mixed with chalk, 
it makes a good external application to sores. 

Burnt Alum, is a safe, convenient, and useful antiseptic and caustie 
remedy, when applied to fungus flesh, in ulcers, in foot rot, or any other 



Ammonia, (or volatile spirits of hartshorn,) is a strong stimulant, and 
has been found useful when poisonous substances have entered the stom- 
ach, as the Prussic acid, and in snake bites, 

Antimony, Chloride of, (or Butter of Antimony.) is a useful caustic in 
cases of foot rot, or fnngus flesh in other cases. 

Borax, is cooling, astringent, and detergent; useful in cases of thrush, 
and foul ulcers. 

Camphor, is a narcotic, sedative, and anti-spasmodic remedy; dose, one 
scruple to a drachm 1 . It is also used with oil, or spirits of wine, as an 
external stimulant. 

Chalk, is an absorbent, and slightly astringent earth; is very useful in 
correcting acidity of the stomach, and as an external application to wounds 
and sores in some cases. 

Copper*, sulphat of, (Blue Vitriol,) externally is a mild caustic, when ap- 
plied to fungus flesh: should never be used internally. 

Epsom Salts, (Sulphat of Magnesia.) An excellent purgative, in doses 
of from one to two ounces, or more, dissolved in warm water or gruel. 

Gentian. A useful vegetable tonic; dose from one to three drachms. 

Ginger. A useful cordial and stomachic medicipe; dose, from half 
a drachm to two drachms. It is very commonly given with^aperient med- 
icine, which it secures from griping. 

Ipecachuana. This acts as a stimulant to the stomach. In repeated small 
doses it is useful in dysentery. 

Horse Castor, is a powerful antispasmodic remedy, in cases of Epi- 
lepsy, &c. — (See page 328.) 

Laudanum. See Opium, 

Lead Aceate, (Sugar of lead.) This article, when dissolved in water, 
op water with a small proportion of vinegar, is a useful application, in 



386 LIST OT MEDICINES. 

superficial inflammations, in diseases of the skin, and in bruises, ulcen, or 
wounds. Where there is fungus flesh in wounds or ulcers, alum, or burnt 
alum in small proportions, is used advantageously, when dissolved along 
with sugar of lead. 

Lead, White, is a useful application for the prevention of the fly, and 
for superficial inflammations. 

Lime Water, or chalk water, is sometimes applied to ill-conditioned 
tores, and operates as an astringent. 

Lime, Chloride of, A valuable antiseptic, and an excellent application 
to foul and offensive wounds and ulcers; also, useful as a means of pre- 
venting infections. 

Linseed oil. A safe and useful purgative; dose, from one to two ounces. 

Muriatic Acid. A powerful caustic, useful in foot rot. 

Opodeldack, Is made by dissolving half an ounce of harfi soap, and half 
an ounce of camphor in one pint of spirits (alcohol); is useful for bruise*, 
•trains, and rheumatism. 

Olive oil, A gentle laxative and purgative; dose one to two ounces; 
useful as an external application in cases of burns, or bites of venomous 
insects or snakes. 

Opium, A valuable antispasmodic and sedative. It may be used, ei- 
ther in the form of a gum, or powder; dose, ten grains. It is more usu- 
ally given in the form of tincture of opium (laudanum); dose, one to three 
scruples. In diarrhoea or dysentery, it allays pain, and diminishes the in- 
creased action of the bowels, and is useful either alone, or joined with 
other medicines. 

Pimento, (Allspice.) A useful cordial and stomachic; dose, one to two 
drachms. 

Rhubarb. Besides its purgative qualities, it possesses considerable as- 
tringent powers, which render it useful in diarrhoea. 

Salt, Glauber's, (Sulphat of Soda,) is a mild and effectual purgative; 
dose, one to two ounces. 

Salt, Common, [Chloride of Sodium,] in moderate quantities, is tonic 
and stomachic ; in large doses it is a useful purgative, but not so mild as 
Epsom salts; dose, one ounce; a solution of it applied externally, is «. 
powerful discutient. 

Sulphur, operates as a purgative, and promotes insensible perspiration, 
dose, one to two ounces, when used alone. It is very efficacious in scab ; 
and other diseases of the skin. 

Sulphuric Acid, [Oil of Vitriol,] A powerful caustic, useful in foot rot, 
alone, or combined with tar. 

Tar, A useful application to the feet, in cases of foot rot, or cases re- 
sembliug it, either alone, or when combined with burnt alum, or sul- 
phuric acid, or other caustics; is valuable in the cure and prevention of 
dropsv and coryza. A small proportion of tar, with lard or oil, is a good 
stimulant to wounds, and is usefully applied in this manner, to wounds 
made in sheep-shearing, or for the Ay. 

Turpentine, oil, or spirits or, is a powerful stimulant and antispasmodic 
*iyen internally: close, one drachm; externally, in small quantities, is a 
useful application to wounds or sores, or to prevent the attack of the fly. 

Yeast, is a cooling, antiseptic, purgative remedy, useful in cases of ob- 
eiaate constipation; "dose, half a pint to a pint, mixed with an equal qusa- 
tity of lukewarm water. 



SRRiTi,- Page 359— liars 3, 7, S, S— For (Estriaread (Estrus, 



SECTIOH LVII. — ±PPSHDIX. 
Fig. 3. 



387 




ENTRANCE TO A SHEEP STALL. 

At Von Thaer's sheep fold, in Germany, the sheep enter 
each door, by passing up an inclined path, which is of the 
same width as the door, the object of which is to prevent 
ewes in a state of pregnancy from being pressed against 
the sides of the door, on entering the stable. The door 
is about one foot from the ground ; to it leads the inclined 
path, as seen in the above figure, and this path holds just 
as many sheep, as there are spaces between the door posts. 
Should 'a sheep force its way to the door, it will displace an- 
other on the side, which has to jump off and take its turn 
with the rest ; whereby no injury is done to ewes in a high 
state of pregnancy.— [C. L. Fleischman.] 

SHEEP GATES. 




388 




SHEEP BARN. 

Fig. 2. 



GROUND BO/OM. 

Fig. 3. 




HAY LOFT. 



Fig. 4. 




SHEEP MANGER. 



APPENDIX. 389 

DESCRIPTION OF A SHEEP BARN AND MANGER. 

Fig. 1. — A sheep barn — 100 feet long, by 28 or 30 feet 
wide; height to the eaves, 16 feet, and framed with posts 
and beams, each bent of which stands 11 feet apart ; the 
beams are supported by 2 posts standing 3 feet apart in the 
middle of the barn, so as to leave room for mangers 
or racks between them — windows on the sides, and two 
doors at each end, so that a sled or wagon may pass through 
it for removal of the manure. In Germany, " the oblong 
form is found the best " for sheep barns. — [C. L. Fleisch- 
man.] 

Fig. 2 — Shows the plan of the ground room, and the dis- 
position of the mangers or racks — one on each side 
of the barn, the entire length of it, and one broad one in 
the centre, at which two rows of sheep can feed. The 
ground room may be conveniently divided into four 
apartments, by moveable cross partitions. In this plan the 
disposition of the mangers or racks is similar to the most 
approved German mode. 

Fig. 3. — -A view of the upper or hay floor, with an 
opening through it, about two feet in width, the entire 
length of the barn. Before the barn is filled, this vacant 
space in the upper floor is covered over with boards. Af- 
ter the barn is filled, a gash is cut in the hay, about two 
feet in width, directly over the opening in the hay floor, 
and the temporary boards placed over it, are removed, so 
that the fodder may be thrown from the loft into the centre 
mangers or racks, and thence be distributed as may be neces- 
sary. The gash in the mow also operates as a -ventilator. 
Around the entire barn dog proof yards may be placed, so 
as to accommodate each division of the flock. 

Fig. 4. — A sheep manger, in the form of a parallelo- 
gram. The four upright posts at each corner, may be 
about 3 inches square, and about 3 feet high, and standing 
at each end about 2^ or 3 feet apart. To these may be 
nailed, at the bottom, boards 10 or 12 feet long, and about 
12 or 14 inches wide, and the upper boards may be 10 
or 12 inches wide so as to leave a space between them, 8 
or 10 inches wide, and suitable to the size of the sheep. 
For lambs, the space between the boards may be 2 or 3 
inches less. 



390 



APPENDIX. 



Composition of sundry animal substances of which 100 parti •©■tain as 
follows : 

Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. A«hes. 

Beef, (dried) 51.83 21.37 7.56 15.01 4.23 

Ox blood, (dried) 51.95 21.39 7.17 15.07 4.42 

Hog's lard, 79.09 9.75 11.14 

Mutton Fat, 79.99 9.30 11.70 

Sugar of Milk, 40.46 52.93 6.61 

Curd, 59.78 11.46 7.42 «. 21.38 

Gelatin, 47.03 27.04 7.09 16.09 

Composition of Horny Tissues, according to the analysis of Scherer: 

Carbon, Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen and Sulphur. 
Hair of the head 

of man, fair, 49.39 6.57 17.93 26.14 

do. brown. 50.62 6.61 17.93 24.82 

do. black, 46.93 6.54 17.52 25.49 
Hair of the beard 

of man, 51.52 6.68 17.93 23.84 

Wool(ofthesheep)50.65 7.02 17.71 24.60 

Buffalo Horn, 51.99 6.71 17.28 24.00 

Quill of a feather, 52.42 7.21 17.89 22.46 

Beard of a feather, 50.43 . 7.11 17.68 24.77 

Temperature of the blood and frequency of the pulse of mndTj aai- 

mals, according to Prevost and Dumas. 

The mean temperature is — Of the pulse in Of the respiration! 

a minute. in a minute. 

Man, 98.0 72 18 

Horse, 98.2 56 16 

Dog, 99.3 90 28 

Goat, 102.5 84 24 

Sheep, (3 y'r old) 103. 90 30 (Canfiald.) 

Common fowl, 106.7 140 30 

Duck, 108.5 170 21 

Lark, 117.2 200 22 

Composition of sundry Vegetable substances — 100 parts of each artic.U 
contain as follows : 

Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Ashes. Water. 
Woody Fibre of 

Oak, (dried) 49.40 44.40 6.00 0.20 

Hay dried at 212°, 45.08 38.07 5.00 1.05 9.00 

Grain of Oats, do. 51.97 37.43 6.27 1.74 2.58 

do Wheat do. 45.78 44.16 6.79 2.09 1.18 

Wheat straw do. 46.37 43.73 5.68 0.20 4.02 

Starch, 44.91 48.98 6.11 

Suo-ar, 42.47 50.63 6.90 

Gum 42.23 50.84 6.93 

Rosin, 75.94 13.34 10.72 

Olive oil, 77.21 9.43 13.36 

Potatoes, (dried) 44.01 43.51 5.08 1.50 

Peas, 35.74 35.96 5.40 S.40 

Beans, 38.24 34.10 5.84 4.00 




APPENDIX. 



391 



.81 
3.94 
7.34 
0.90 
0.31 

27*72 
3^53 
0.25 

0.06 



White Clover. Lucern. 



The annexed quantities of ashes are contained in 1000 lbs. of the dry 

hay of each of the following grasses: 

Rye Grass. Red Clover 

Potash, 8.81 19.95 

Soda, 3.94 5.29 

Lime, 7.34 27.80 

Magnesia, 0.90 3.33 

Alumina, 0.31 0.14 

Oxyd of iron, 

Silica, 

Sulphuric acid, 

Phosphoric do. 

Chlorine (or muri- 
atic acid), 



3.60 
4.47 
6.57 

3.62 



31.05 
5.79 

23.48 
3.05 
1.90 
0.63 

14.73 
3.53 
5.05 

2.11 



13.40 
6.15 

48.31 
3.48 
0.33 
0.30 
3.30 
4.04 

13.07 

3.18 



Sainfoin. 

20.57 
4.37 

21.95 
2.88 
0.66 



5.00 
3.41 
9.16 

1.57 



52 86 



74.77 



91.32 



95.66 69.57 



According- to the analysis of Sprengel, 1000 lbs. of the grain or dry- 
straw of eaeh kind of grain here mentioned, contain ashes and ingredients 
each as follows : 





Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye 






Grain. 


Straw. 


Grain. 


Straw. 


Grain. 


Straw. 


Grain. Straw. 


Potash, 


2.25 


0.20 


1.50 


8.70 


2.78 


1.80? 
0.48$ 


5.32 


0.32 


Soda, 


2.40 


0.29 


1.32 


0.02 


2.90 


0.11 


Lime, 


0.96 


2.40 


0.86 


1.52 


1.05 


5.54 


1.22 


1.78 


Magnesia, 


0.90 


0.32 


0.67 


0.22 


1.80 


0.76 


0.44 


0.12 


Alumina, 


0.26 


0.90 


0.14 


0.06 


0.25 


1.46 


0.24) 
0.42 J 


0.25 


Oxyd of iron, 


a trace 




0.40 


0.02 


a trace 


0.14 


Oxyd of manga 
Silica, 


nese, 






0.02 




0.20 


0.34 




4.00 


28.70 


19.76 


45.88 


11.82 


38.56 


1.64 


22.97 


Sulphuric acid 


0.50 


0.37 


0.35 


0.79 


0.59 


1.18 


0.23 


1.70 


Phosphoric do. 


0.40 


1.70 


0.70 


0.12 


2.10 


1.60 


0.46 


0.51 


Chlorine, 


0.10 


0.30 


0.10 


0.05 


0.19 


0.70 


0.09 


0.17 



11.77 35.18 25.30 57.40 23.49 52.42 10.40 27,91 



392 



APPENDIX. 



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APPPENDIX. 39.1 

» 

Composition of the Ashes of Heath Grass and of horse-tail grasses — 
1000 lbs, of the dried hay of each of these grasses contain as follows: 

HORSE-TAIL GRASSES. , HEATH GRASS. 

Sulphat of Potash, 12.00;Sulphat of Potash, 5.00 

Chloride of Potassium, 11.40|Chloride of Potassium, 1.20 

Silica, 50.00|Carbonat of Potash, 6.80 

Carbonat of Lime, 6.20|Silica, 37.50 

Sulphat of Lime, 14.40!Carbonat of Lime, 28.00 

Phosphat of Lime, 2.20]Phosphat of Lime, 13.00 

Magnesia, 3.00|Magnesia, 1 20 

. |OxydofIron. L40 

99.20! do. Manganese, 6.10 

! 94.20 

Note. — All grasses were designed for the use. of such graminivorous 
animals as they are adapted for; tnerefore, it may be noticed, that in the 
ashes of horse-tail grasses, besides a large proportion of sulphat of lime, 
there is also a large proportion of sulphat of potash, which is a powerfully 
antiseptic salt, and was doubtless placed in these grasses, in addition to 
the sulphat of lime, in order to neutralize the injurious influence of the 
form of the leaves of these grasses. 

The ashes of the Seed and Straw of the field bean and field pea, dried 
in the air, contain in 1000 parts of each, as follows :- 



Potash, 

Soda, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Alumina, 

Oxyd of Iron, 

Oxyd of Manganese, 

Silica, 

Sulphuric Acid, 

Phosphoric Acid, 

Chlorine, 

21.36 31.21 24.64 49.71 

The Turnip, Carrot, and Potatoe, each, as they are carried from the 
field, contain respectively in 1000 lbs., as follows: 



Field 


Bean. 


Field Pea. 


Seed. 


Straw. 


Seed. 


Straw 


4.15 


16.56 


8.10 


2.35 


8.16 


0.50 


7.39 




1.65 


6.24 


0.58 


27.30 


1.58 


2.09 


1.36 


3.42 


0.34 


8.10 


0.20 


0.60 




0.07 


0.10 


0.20 




0.05 




0.07 


1.28 


2.20 


4.10 


9.96 


0.89 


0.34 


0.53 


3.87 


2.92 


2.26 


1.90 


2.40 


0.41 


0.80 


0.38 


0.04 







Turnips. 


• Carrots. 


Potatoes. 






Roots. 


Leaves. 




Roots. 


Leaves 


Potash, 




23.86 


32.03 


35.33 


40.28 


81.09 


Soda, 




10.48 


22.02 


9.22 


23.34 


0.09 


Lime, 




7.52 


62.00 


6.57 


3.31 


129.07 


Magnesia, 




2.54 


5.09 


3.84 


3.24 


17.00 


Alumina, 




0.36 


0.03 


0.39 


0.50 


0.04 


Oxyd of Iron, 


0.32 


1.07 . 


0.33 


0.32 


0.02 


Oxyd of Mang-anesej 






0.60 






Silica, 




3.88 


12.08 


1.37 


0.84 


49.04 


Sulphuric 


Acid, 


8.01 


25.02 


2.70 


5.40 


4.02 


Phosphoric Acid, 


3.67 


9.08 


5.14 


4.01 


19.07 


Chlorine, 




2.39 


8.07 


0.70 


1.60 


5.00 






63.03 


180.09 


66.19 


82.83 


308.04 



394 



APPENDIX. 



ANALYSIS OF SUNDRY SOILS, BY SPRENGEL. 
(A.) Surface soil of a mountainous district in the neighborhood of 



Ohio. (B.) Analysis of the subsoil. 
great fertility. 



Silica, with fine Silicious sand, 

Alumina, 

Peroxide and protoxide of Iron, 

Peroxide of Manganese 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Potash, (principally combined with silica,) 

Soda, 

Phosphoric, acid, 

Sulphuric acid. 

Chlorine, 

Humus soluble in alkalies, 

Humus, 

Carbonatof lime. 

Nitrogenous organic matter. 



This soil is also distinguished for it* 



B. 

94.28 
1.37 
2.33 
1.20 
0.24 
0.31 

0.24 



A. 
87.14 
5.66 
2.22 
0.36 
0.56 
0.31 
0.12) 
0.25 j 
0.06 a trace 
0.02 0.30 
0.03 a trace 
1.30 
1.07 
0.08 
1.01 

100.00 100.00 



Analysis of a very fertile alluvial;' 
soil from Honigpolder in Germany j 
IS 1 o manure had been applied to it. 
Wheat has been raised on this landj 
for 70 years without manuring; it is 
occasionally left fallow. One hun-j 
dred parts of the earthy portion of 
this soil contained as follows: 
Silica and line Silicious sand, 64.S0 
Alumina, 5.70 

Peroxide of Iron, 6.10 

do Manganese, 0.09 

Lime, 5.88 

Magnesia, 0.8 

Potash, principally in combina- 
tion with Silica, 0.21 
Soda idem. 0.39 
Phosphat of Lime, 0.43 
Sulphat of Lime, 0.21 
Chlorine (in common salt) 0.20 
Carbonat of Lime, 3.92 
Humus soluble in alkalies, 2.5 
Humus, 5.60 
Nitrogenous matter, 1.B'6 
Water, 1.50 



100.00 



Surface soil, of alluvial land in 
Ohio, remarkable for its great fertili- 
tility, One hundred parts consisted 
of — 

Silica and fine Silicious sand, 79.53 
Alumina, 7.30 

Peroxide and protoxide of Iron 

(much magnetic iron sand,) 5.82 
Peroxide of Manganese, 1.32 

Lime, 0.61 

Magnesia, 1.02 

Potash, (principally combined 

with Silica,) 0.20 

Soda, 0.02 

Phosphoric acid, (combined with 

lime and oxyde of iron,) 1.77 

Sulphat of lime, 0.12 

Chlorine, 0.03 

Humus soluble in alkalies, 1.95 

Nitrogenous organic matter, 0.23 

Wax and resinous matter, 0.02 



100.00 



APPENDIX. 



395 



(A.) Analysis of a barren heath soil fro 
(B.) A sandy soil containing much humus, 
dy soil possessing the same characters: 

Silica and coarse silicious sand, 

Alumina, 

Peroxide aud protoxide of Iron, 

Peroxide of Manganese, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Soda, 

Potash, 

Phosphoric acid, 

Sulphuric acid, 

Chlorine in common salt, 

Humus. 

Vegetable remains, 



m Aurich, in OstFrieland.— 
but also sterile (C.) A san- 



A. 


B. 


C. 


95.77 


85.97 


96.72 


0.32 


0.32 


0.37 


0.40 


0.44 


0.48 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


0.23 


0.16 




0.06 


0.24 


0.08 


0.03 


0.01 


0.03 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


a trace 


0.05 


0.01 


0.05 


0.76 


0.63 


0.80 


2.30 


8.20 


1.45 



100,00 100.00 100.00 



REMEDY FOR THE FOOT ROT. 

A new remedy for the foot rot has been tried, with signal success, on 
the extensive flocks of Humphrey Howland, Esq., of Cayuga county, 
N. Y., and the continued application of the remedy has wholly removed 
the disease from his flocks, so that not a solitary case remains; and so 
"simple and effectual is the remedy, that had it been applied at the com- 
mencement of the disease, it would have saved him several thousand dol- 
lars. 

The remedy is now in use for the second season, during which time, 
the foot rot has diminished from thirty per cent to one per cent. Other 
flocks in the neighborhood, to which the remedy has not been applied , 
are as badly afflicted as ever. 

The remedy consists in mixing flour of sulphur with the salt given to 
the sheep, in a proportion just sufficient to discolor the salt or about one- 
twentieth part. They are regularly and constantly fed with this mixture 
through the whole season. — (Cultivator for October, 1848.) 

Gypsum contains sulphur; hence the feeding of it to sheep possibly 
may be as useful as the pure sulphur in cases of foot rot. 

The rationale of the operation of sulphur in cases of foot rot appears 
to be, that foot rot is produced by morbific matter which is generated in 
the skin or which is applied to it externally and is absorbed into it, be- 
tween the hoofs or near them; sulphur opens the pores of the skin and 
excites it into action, so as to expel the excrementitious matter, and na- 
ture restores the parts affected. 

Buckwheat is a kind of grain which powerfully stimulates the skin, 
and being a very wholesome grain for sheep,* may be useful along 
with sulphur in "diseases of the skin. 



f See page 232. 



1 



